The following is a bibliography of advertising copy research, covering a five-year period from 1983 to 1987. This work was distributed, but never published. An earlier bibliography, covering the years 1973 to 1982, was compiled by Stout and Leckenby (1984). And two earlier versions, covering work through 1960 and 1972 respectively, were compiled by the Advertising Research Foundation (ARF).
Many, or most, of the citations contained in this bibliography have been excerpted and placed under appropriate topics listed on the University of Texas Advertising Research Resource Center web page, but the bibliography is provided below as a whole, in its original form.
An Annotated Bibliography of Copy Research
1983-1987
Kuen-Hee Ju Patricia A. Stout John D. Leckenby
I. ISSUES OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1. Calvert, Stephen D., Jane Ring and Robert M. Cosenza, "Physiological and Psychological Union As a Necessary Step toward the Understanding of Consumer Information Processing." Proceedings of the 1984 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Donald R. Glover, 1984, 127-132.
This paper reviews theoretical and methodological developments with regard to involvement and its impact on consumers' information processing and learning. A model incorporating both physiological and psychological perspectives is proposed for future research on consumer information processing.
2. Childers, Terry L., Susan E. Heckler and Michael J. Houston, "Memory for the Visual and Verbal Components of Print Advertisements," Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 3, (3, 1986), 137-50.
Based on the past research a model is developed that describes the underlying process of the visual and verbal components of print ads. The model views these two components as consisting of different levels of processing, elaborative encoding, and encoding distinctiveness. The model is tested in an empirical study involving a sample of undergraduates. Recall and recognition performance are measured of mock-up print ads developed for 10 different products. The research reveals superior memory for pictorially conveyed product information as a results of more elaborative and distinctive encoding compared to verbally conveyed information. Findings also suggest that the two forms of encoding (elaborative encoding and distinctive encoding) act in concert to produce a picture superiority effect.
3. Edell, Julie A. and Marian C. Burke, "The Moderating Effect of Attitude Toward an Ad on Ad Effectiveness Under Different Processing Conditions." Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 644-49.
The paper reviews four alternative models concerning the process by which attitude toward the ad mediates the effects of advertising on the attitude toward the brand and/or purchase intention. Competing hypotheses and empirical evidence are also discussed for each of the process models.
4. Edell, Julie A. and Marian C. Burke, "The Power of Feelings in Understanding Advertising Effects," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14, (December, 1987), 421-33.
Two experiments are conducted to examine whether feelings occur as a results of viewing television commercials, the relative importance of feelings and judgments of the ad's characteristics on several advertising outcomes, and the variation in the importance of feelings given different ad characteristics. The research involves subjects recruited on university campus and/or via ads in the newspaper, and uses as experimental stimuli authentic television commercials for various established brands of products being aired on television (Study 1) and for new products or services not available in the experimental locale (Study 2). Results indicate that negative and positive feelings, occurring concurrently, are both important predictors of the ad's effectiveness. They are found to contribute uniquely to attitude toward the ad, beliefs about the brand's attributes, and attitude toward the brand. The study also indicate that the relative importance of feelings and judgments of the ad's characteristics varies depending on whether the ad is predominantly informational or informational.
5. Edell, Julie A. and Richard Staelin, "The Information Processing of Pictures in Print Advertisements," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 10, (June 1983), 45- 61.
This study develops and empirically tests a process model conceptualizing how information in the verbal portion of the ad affects the processing of the information in the pictorial portion, and vice versa. Subjects varying in age, between 20 and 28, are shown full-page, color mock-up print ads developed for hypothetical brands of three durable products (car, camera, and calculator) in a forced-exposure setting. The response measurement includes eye movement, verbal protocol, recall and other cognitive structure measures. The results indicate that the way a message is conveyed (verbally or pictorially), whether the viewer is given some reference point for encoding the picture (framed or nonframed), and the type of claims made (objective, subjective, or characterization) have a significant effect on the processing of the information, brand attitudes and purchase intentions. This study also shows that picture-verbal message congruency and incongruency involve very different processes.
6 Finn, David W., "The Integrated Information Response Model," Journal of Advertising,Vol.13, (1, 1984), 24-33.
After reviewing two information response models (Integrated Response Model and Single Hierarchy Model), the author explores the conditions under which advertising might lead directly to higher order beliefs and/or high information acceptance beyond mere awareness. Type of advertising medium, the factualness of message content, and the relation of the message topic to the needs of the receiver are described as some of the variables that might lead to differential influence of advertising on the cognition stage in the effect hierarchy. Several propositions and suggestions for future research are provided regarding those variables.
7. Friestad, Marian and Esther Thorson, "Emotion-Eliciting Advertising: Effects on Long Term Memory and Judgment," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (ed.), Richard J. Lutz, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1985, 111-16.
This article examines memory and attitudinal impact of emotional messages after an extensive delay and the effects of encoding instructions designed to promote either episodic or semantic processing of the message. 30-second finished television commercials employing various executional styles are shown to student subjects in a laboratory setting. Their responses are collected through telephone interview 6 to 8 weeks later. The study finds a stronger long-term memory and more positive judgements associated with emotional messages relative to the neutral ads. It is also suggested that emotion do not differentially affect episodic and semantic encoding.
8. Gardner, Meryl Paula, "Does Attitude Toward the Ad Affect Brand Attitude Under a Brand Evaluation Set?," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 22, (May, 1985), 192-98.
This research examines the mediating role of set (brand vs. nonbrand) on the impact of brand-related beliefs and attitude toward the ad in the formation of brand attitude. Print ads for hypothetical brands of tennis balls and cooking oil are used as stimuli in the experiment involving 136 undergraduate students. Results indicate that attitude toward the affects brand attitude under a brand evaluation set as much as it does under a nonbrand evaluation set.
9. Gardner, Meryl P., Andrew A. Mitchell and J. Edward Russo, "Low Involvement Strategies for Processing Advertisements," Journal of Advertising,Vol. 14, (2, 1985), 4-12, 56.
The authors conceptualize involvement as a situation specific state variable with two components, intensity and direction. The latter component is viewed as being represented by the strategy used to process it. Two types of processing strategies are discussed and empirically compared. Findings indicate that a nonbrand (low involvement) strategy yields less brand knowledge retained, but more positive brand attitudes than a brand processing (high involvement) strategy.
10. Gresham, Larry G. and Terence A. Shimp. "Attitude toward the Advertisement and Brand Attitudes: A Classical Conditioning Prospective," Journal of Advertising,Vol. 14, (1, 1985), 10-17, 49.
A laboratory test is conducted of a classical conditioning hypothesis as the mediational process by which attitude toward the ad impacts brand attitudes. Results indicate that the attitude toward the ad influences brand attitudes. This study, however, fails to provide strong support for a classical conditioning hypothesis. Implications for theorizing and research in advertising are discussed.
11. Hill, Ronald Paul, "The Effects of Advertisements on Consumers' Mood States: An Interactive Perspective," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 15, (ed.), Michael J. Houston, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1987, 131-34.
This paper discusses the issue of how a consumer's mood state interacts with the mood and information contained in an ad to produce ad and brand attitudes. A number of propositions regarding the process are presented.
12. Holbrook, Morris B. and John O'Shaughnessy, "The Role of Emotion in Advertising," Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 1, (2, 1984), 45-64.
The paper discusses the conceptual distinction between emotion and other motivational, affective constructs, and presents a model of the emotional process and a typology of emotional content. The authors also address some managerial issues concerning the use of emotional appeals and methodological problems in measuring emotions. Directions for future research are suggested.
13. Hunt, James M., E. H. Bonfield and Jerome B. Kernan, "The Representation and Recall of Message Arguments in Advertising: Test of A Schema-Based Model," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (ed.), Richard J. Lutz, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1985, 562-65.
The schema-copy-plus-tag (SCT) memory paradigm is tested in the context of print advertising. The investigation involves 41 student subjects, uses as experimental stimulus a mockup ad embeded in a simulated magazine, and employs a 2X2 (typical vs. atypical arguments: immediate vs. two-day delay) design. Results of the study are mixed, not fully supporting the proposed model. Possible reasons for the findings are discussed.
14. Jensen, Thomas D. and Larry W. Rottmeyer, "Visual Information Processing of Television Commercials: Cognitive Effects," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (ed.), Richard J. Lutz, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1985, 158-163.
This paper describes a theory and methodology for examining viewers' chunking of ongoing visual information while viewing commercials. The number of boundaries of information chunks ("breakpoints") indicated by message recipients is hypothesized to affect information processing and in turn subsequent beliefs and attitude. Authentic television commercials for frequently purchased nondurable products are used in an experimental study with 209 college students. Findings show support for the hypothesis.
15. Kroeber-Riel, Werner, "Emotional Product Differentiation By Classical Conditioning," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 538-43.
It is argued that emotional advertising could achieve product differentiation via classical conditioning, independent of knowledge and use of the product. Based on the empirical results from a previous study by the author, the article lists some of the conditions required for effective conditioning.
16. Leigh, James H. and Anil Menon, "Audience Involvement Effects on the Information Processing of Umbrella Print Advertisements," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16, (3, 1987), 3-12.
This study examines the effects of learning conditions and the stimulus complexity on recall and recognition of various ad elements. The intentional/incidental paradigm for learning is used as a means of manipulating involvement. Hypotheses regarding the relationship of involvement and stimulus complexity are developed from Knowledge- Assembly theory and tested in an experiment with a sample of college students. Different versions of a mock-up, umbrella print ad are used. Results show a superiority of intentional over incidental learning that tends to be more pronounced with a less complex stimulus.
17. Lessne, Greg J. and Nicholas M. Didow, Jr., "Inoculation Theory and Resistance to Persuasion in Marketing," Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 4, (2, 1987), 157- 65.
This paper reviews and assess McGuire's inoculation theory and the relevant psychology and marketing literature pertaining to resistance to persuasion. Directions for future inoculation research are presented.
18. Liu, Scott S., "Picture-Image Memory of TV Advertising in Low-Involvement Situations: A Psychophysiological Analysis," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 9, (1, 1986), 27-60.
The article discusses the role of consumers' picture-image memory engaged by television advertising from a psychophysiological perspective. Derived from theoretical views and empirical findings in the literature of various disciplines, three major topic areas are examined: conditions relating to the generation of picture-image memory, the processing of picture-image memory, and the impact of picture-image memory on consumer behavior. Implications for future research and practice are also discussed.
19. MacKenzie, Scott B., Richard J. Lutz and George E. Belch, "The Role of Attitude Toward the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: A Test of Competing Explanations," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 23, (May, 1986), 130-43.
Four competing structural models of the mediating role of attitude toward the ad are described, together with supporting empirical evidence for each. The models are tested via a structural equation analysis using data from two laboratory experiments. The results support for the dual mediation hypothesis which posits the attitude toward the influence brand attitude both directly and indirectly via affecting brand cognitions.
20. Mitchell, Andrew A., "Some Issues Surrounding Research on the Effects of 'Feeling Advertisements'," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (ed.), Richard J. Lutz, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1985, 623-28.
The author argues that strict information processing models of advertising effects do not adquately explain the effect of "feeling" ads. The paper discusses various theoretical issues concerning affective states deemed critical to developing theoretical models of how "feeling" ads may work. A number of issues are also discussed with regard to competing hypotheses for the process.
21. Nelson, James E., Calvin P. Duncan, and Nancy T. Frontczak, "The Distraction Hypothesis and Radio Advertising," Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49, (4, 1985), 60- 71.
The effect of distraction in a radio commercial on cognitive response and message acceptance is examined in an experiment involving 157 male student consumers. The study uses as the stimulus a 60-second radio commercial for a hypothetical product embedded in a 15-minute program. Results fail to support the distraction hypothesis. Possible explanations for the results are discussed and directions for future research are offered.
22. Park, C. Whan and S. Mark Young, "Consumer Response to Television Commercials: The Impact of Involvement and Background Music on Brand Attitude Formation," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 23, (February, 1986), 11-24.
This paper emipirically examines how consumers' involvement (low, high- cognitive, or high-affective involvement) and music as a peripheral cue affect the process of brand attitude formation. Television commercials for a hypothetical brand of shampoo introduced by a well-known company are used as stimuli in the experiment involving 120 female consumers between ages of 21 and 60. Results indicate that the effect of music on brand attitude varies by the type and level of involvement. Music is found to have a facilitative effect on brand attitude under the low involvement condition and a distracting effect in the cognitive involvement condition. Results do not provide clear evidence for the relationship between music and brand attitude under the affective involvement condition. Alternative explanations for the results are provided and implications for future research are discussed.
23. Preston, Ivan L. and Esther Thorson, "The Expanded Association Model: Keeping the Hierarchy Concept Alive," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (February/March, 1984), 59-65.
This article outlines the Association Model in its expanded version. Previous models of nonhierarchical ordering and models of omitted hierarchy steps are examined and juxtaposed with the association model in terms of threats to validity. Consequences of expanding the association model are discussed and suggestions for research in its application are made.
24. Puto, Christopher P., "Memory for Scripts in Advertisements," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, (eds.), Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1984, 404-9.
Hypotheses derived from psychological research on scripts that have relevance to potential applications to advertising are tested in a pilot study conducted with a group of college students. The study uses written scripts presented in a story format resembling a slice-of-life ad. Results of the study indicate that scripts can be an effective method for enhancing the memorability of key points in an advertisement. No effects of scripts on measures of beliefs, attitudes, or purchase intention are found.
25. Rossiter, John R. and Larry Percy, "Advertising Communication Models," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, (eds.), Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1984, 510-24.
The paper discusses a general structure for incorporating the components deemed necessary to describe how advertising works. Four fundamental models with a total of eight paired variations are identified, along with the list of advertising tactics for the models.
26. Srull, Thomas K., "Memory, Mood, and Consumer Judgment," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, (eds.), Melanie Wallendorf and Paul Anderson, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1986, 404-7.
The research investigates the impact of subjective mood states on the processing of information presented in ads. From an information processing perspective that distinguishes between retrieval and computational processes is presented a model of how subjective affective states influence product evaluations. Various propositions of the model are tested in a series of experiments conducted with student subjects. Results suggest that at least some mood effects can be accounted for quite well by the proposed paradigm. The paper provides possible explanations for the results inconsistent with the model.
27. Stewart, David W., "The Moderating Role of Recall, Comprehension, and Brand Differentiation on the Persuasiveness of Television Advertising," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 26, (April/May, 1986), 43-46.
This study analyzes data concerning 1059 commercials tested by Research Systems Corporation in a laboratory setting within the context of television programming and other noncompetitive commercials. A tree structure is used to explore the relationships between recall, comprehension, brand differentiation, and persuasion. Results indicate the existence of a complex, interactive relationship among these factors. Recall and comprehension are found to be important influences on persuasion, although correlations between measures are modest. The use of a brand-differentiating message is also found to provide a higher probability of changing brand choice.
28. Stout, Patricia and John D. Leckenby, "The Rediscovery of Emotional Response in Copy Research." Proceedings of the 1984 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Donald R. Glover, 1984, 40-45.
The paper presents a conceptual definition of emotion drawn from advertising and psychology literature and a preliminary development of a coding scheme for analysis of affective verbal responses. A pilot test using television advertising is coducted with a group of women selected via mall intercepts. Results show that ad-evoked emotional responses or feelings in respondents are not unidimensional and can be categorized into the different types considered in the study.
29. Swasy, John L. and Arno J. Rethans, "Knowledge Effects on Curiosity and New Product Advertising," Journal of Advertising, Vol.15, (4, 1986), 28-34.
Empirically examined is the authors' proposition that ad-stimulated curiosity and question responses are indicators of the viewer's comprehension and learning processes during initial exposures to new product advertising. Results indicate that prior product knowledge affects the extent of ad-evoked curiosity cognitive responses as well as questions concerning product class- related attributes and values. Recommendations for future research and testing of new product ads are provided.
30. Thorson, Esther, "Propositional Determinants of Memory for Television Commercials," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 6, (1, 1983), 139-155.
Based on a model of viewer memory which identifies the proposition--a group of concepts forming an idea--as its unit of analysis, this article explores the notion that the linguistic form in which the verbal content of a commercial is organized largely determines remembering. Scripts of fifteen television commercials for nine household products and the recall protocols of adult viewers for the commercials are analyzed. Results indicate that propositional measures can explain a significant portion of the variance in viewer recall beyond that accounted for by simple word counts in the scripts or protocols. The potential of the propositional measures as a useful tool for analyzing the relationship of verbal commercial content to recall is discussed.
II. METHODOLOGICAL CONCERN
31. Adams, Arthur J., "Cautionary Note on the Reliability of Advertising Test-Retest Scores," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 13, (1, 1984), 41-45.
Using some hypothetical examples this article discusses potential problems in using the test-retest correlation as a reliability measure in the copy testing or advertising literature. The author suggests that caution be taken in its use and other statistics be used, whenever possible, as supplements to the limited amount of information contained in the estimated reliability number.
32. Adams, Arthur, Sunil Mehrotra, and Stuart Van Auken, "Reliability of Forced- Exposure Television Copytesting," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (June/July, 1983), 29-32.
The paper presents an approach to measure reliability, which employs two diagnostic tests proposed by Silk to determine whether changes have occurred over time in the variance and mean of copy-test scores. Findings from a study conducted with 1200 adults over a one and a half year period indicate that the diagnostic tests for the stability of score mean and variance could yield meaningful results and should be employed whenever testing score shifts are likely.
33. Allen, Chris T., Karen A. Machleit and Susan S. Marine, "On Assessing the Emotionality of Advertising Via Izard's Differential Emotions Scale," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 15, (ed.), Michael J. Houston, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1987, 226-31.
Two scales containing ten discrete emotions are derived from Izard's differential emotions theory. Using student subjects, two studies are conducted to empirically test the viability of the scales as alternative methods to capture the multidimensional nature of ad-evoked emotion. Results suggest the measures can be adapted to a variety of advertising contexts while maintaining their desirable psychometric properties.
34. Block, Martin P., Tamara S. Brezen and Don E. Schultz, "Pretesting Alternative Direct Response Creative Executions Using Multidimensional Scaling." Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, 1987, R92-R96.
A multidimensional approach to pretesting direct response ad executions is proposed and is employed in a study of 50 college subjects, potential target consumers for the product promoted. Results of the study indicate that the perceived clutter of a direct mail piece's appearance and the degree of personalization are key in invoking consumer response. Advantages of the approach over the traditional unidimensional approach are discussed.
35. Burke, Raymond R. and Wayne S. DeSarbo, "Computer-Assisted Print Ad Evaluation," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, (eds.), Melanie Wallendorf and Paul Anderson, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1986, 93-95.
A computerized ad testing approach is presented which allows the estimation of the effects of an ad on a broad range of consumer response at a reasonable time and cost and permits precise control over stimulus material presentation. An illustrative application of the approach is provided, and limitations of the method and future directions are discussed.
36. Cacioppo, John T. and Richard E. Patty, "Physiological Responses and Advertising Effects: Is the Cup Half Full or Half Empty?," Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 2, (2, 1985), 115-26.
This conceptual paper discusses the issues and the debate concerning the utility of psychophysiological measures for evaluating the effects of advertising executions. The authors conclude that while research has not demonstrate invariant psychophysiolocial links, the psychophysiological assessments are promising as they offer a complementing perspective on consumer behavior.
37. Cohen, Ronald Jay, "Computer-enhanced Qualitative Research," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 25, (June/July, 1985), 48-53.
The procedure involving a typical computer-enhanced interview, wherein the computer is integral to the methodology itself, is summarized with reference to three phases of the research: preparation, on-site testing, and analysis. Cases utilizing computer-enhanced qualitative research are illustrated with an interpretation of the meaning of results. Its advantages over the focus group approach and limitations are discussed.
38. Dickson, Peter R. and Paul L. Sauer, "Copytesting, Thought Elicitation and Attitude Theory: Two's Company, Three's a Crowd," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, (eds.), Melanie Wallendorf and Paul Anderson, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1986, 177-81.
The paper reviews conventional thought elicitation coding techniques, and presents an alternative three-phase coding scheme that is based on various attitude theories. An illustrative experimental study is described that can compare three different coding schemes across several thought elicitation tack instruction sets.
39. Donius, James F., "Campaign Simulation via Multiple Exposure On-Air Copy Testing," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (April/May, 1983), 35-39.
The effects of multiple exposure on ad recall, attribute ratings, and purchase intention are examined by type of commercials ("mood" vs. "straight-sell"). The experimental subjects consisting of product users living in eight cities are exposed to commercials in a natural setting and measured 24 hours after the exposure. Results indicate that the "straight-sell" commercial produces higher recall,but the two types of commercials do not differ on attribute rating or purchase interest. The study also finds that, overall, recall is most increased and benefit perception is more easily enhanced than persuasion by multiple exposure.
40. Dunn, Theodore F., "ARF's Copy Research Validity Project," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (December 1984/January 1985), 40-42.
The article describes ARF's project to test the predicted validity of six copy research methods differing in terms of employing a recruited vs. self- selected natural audience, on-air vs. off-air exposure, immediate vs. day- after recall measure, the measurement ordering of purchase intent and recall, or post-only vs. pre-post test design.
41. Durgee, Jeffrey F., "Depth-Interview Techniques for Creative Advertising," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 25, (December 1985/January 1986), 29- 37.
This article reviews three in-depth interviewing techniques (laddering, hidden issue questioning, and symbolic analysis) and evaluates each in terms of the ability to identify novel product benefits and stimulate creative advertising. For each method, examples of questions to be asked and samples of creative concepts are presented based on findings from a hypothetical study of attitudes toward airlines among businessmen. The author notes that the three techniques are best used to compliment each other.
42. Eastlack, Joseph O., Jr., "Point of View: How to Take the Controversy Out of TV Copy Testing," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (December 1984/January 1985), 37-39.
After describing six popular schools of thought about television copy testing, the author emphasizes that the goals of marketing should guide copy testing.
43. Fox, Karen F. A., "The Measurement of Issue/Advocacy Advertising Effects," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 9, (1, 1986), 61-92.
This paper reviews the research on issue/advocacy advertising, and describes current measurement and evaluation approaches to the effectiveness of the issue/advocacy advertising campaign. Implications of the review are discussed for future research and practice.
44. Friedman, Roberto and Don Jugenheimer, "Copytesting through Psychological Meaning." Proceedings of the 1985 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Nancy Stephens, 1985, R42-R45.
This paper presents an alternative copytesting technique which is based on the assessment of the psychological meaning of a message. The procedure and strengths and managerial implications are discussed.
45. Grass, Robert C., Wallace H. Wallace and Wayne G. Robertshaw, "The 'NOLAD' Concept," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (February/March, 1983), 47- 55.
The authors propose the NOLAD (non-listening attention demand) as a system of pretesting and evaluating radio commercials. Using actual radio commercials the NOLAD concept is tested on recall of sponsor, brand name and main idea of the commercial. An experiment is conducted with 150 adults recruited in a shopping mall. The inverse relationship is found between recall and the NOLAD level. The study shows that the measure can provide meaningful information regarding the impact of the commercial and the rate at which the performance of a commercial diminishes as the NOLAD level increases.
46. Green, Paul E. and Catherine M. Schaffer, "Ad Copy Testing," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (October/November, 1983), 73-80.
The authors propose diagnostic procedures for summarizing perceptual and executional impact in advertising copy testing which involves pre-post tests under forced-exposure conditions. The analytical procedure is described and an empirical example is presented.
47. Hill, Ronald P. and Michael B. Mazis, "Measuring Emotional Responses to Advertising," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (ed.), Richard J. Lutz, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1985, 164-69.
The paper discusses the need to incorporate the additional measures for emotional components of cognitive response, attitudes toward the ad, and brand attitude into the traditional approach of measuring these variables. In an experiment with student subjects, affective cognitive response (positive vs. negative affect) are found to be useful in assessing the impact of emotional television commercials. Results also indicate that the ad rating factors developed by Leavitt and Wells, such as those labeled as amusing, energetic, authoritative, etc., are more effective than the traditional evaluative measures.
48. Holbrook, Morris B. and Rajeev Batra, "Assessing the Role of Emotions as Mediators of Consumer Responses to Advertising," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14, (December, 1986), 404-20.
A multidimensional approach si proposed to examine the way in which emotional reactions to advertising mediate the relationship between advertising content and attitudes toward the ad or brand. An empirical application of the approach involving 72 TV commercials is shown to demonstrate the usefulness of the method in assessing the role of emotions as mediators of consumer response to advertising. Findings of the study also suggest the importance of incorporating the full range of ad-evoked emotions into the model of communication process.
49. Hollingsworth, Kirk, "The Fragility of Attribute Data," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (December 1984/January 1985), 44-50.
With an illustration of actual copy-testing data, this article addresses the issue of biases in attribute rating resulting from measuring the evaluation of concepts before product-related evaluation is measured.
50. Keon, John W., "Copy Testing Ads for Imagery Products," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (December 1983/January 1984), 41-48.
This paper introduces a technique which would assist in determining the best concept, in pretesting to select the best new ad, and in evaluating the post-introduction success of an ad campaign for imagery products. The technique, TRINODAL, involves the perceptual mapping of ad images, brand images, and consumer preferences. A case introducing a new ad for a new brand is followed to illustrate how to use TRINODAL mapping in each of three steps. The limitations of the technique and applications for existing brands are discussed.
51. Klebba, Joanne M., "Physiological Measures of Research: A Review of Brain Activity, Electrodermal Response, Pupil Dilation, and Voice Analysis Methods and Studies," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 8, (1, 1985), 53- 76.
With a discussion on the major directions of physiological research in general and on the strengths and weaknesses of direct physiological measures, the specific techniques used in brain-wave, electrodermal response, pupil dilation, and voice analysis are reviewed by considering the terminology, equipment, and procedures of each. Principal advertising- related findings of each technique are also presented.
52. Krugman, Herbert E., "Point of View: Measuring Memory-An Industry Dilemma," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 25, (August/September, 1985), 49-51.
The author discusses the limitations of using recall as a memory measure in advertising research situations involving low-interest, low-involvement, repeat-purchase products. The need for recognition-type measures is addressed.
53. Lastovicka, John L., "Convergent and Discriminant Validity of Television Commercial Rating Scales," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 12, (2, 1983),14-23, 52.
This study examines convergent and discriminant validity of three copytesting concepts (Relevance, Confusion and Entertainment) by comparing three Likert-type scales of these concepts with measures obtained from the content analysis of open-ended responses. Commercials for four actual branded products are shown to a sample of college student subjects in a forced exposure setting resembling a storyboard copytest. As standards of convergent and discriminant validity, a multiconcept- multimethod covariance matrix of viewer responses is analyzed with confirmatory factor analysis. The analysis demonstrates measurement validity for two of the three scales (Relevance and Entertainment).
54. Leckenby, John D. and Joseph T. Plummer. "Advertising Stimulus Measurement and Assessment Research: A Review of Advertising Testing Methods," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 6, (2, 1983), 135-65.
The paper identifies and describes five major controversies that have plaqued the history of advertising testing. Issues discussed concerning advertising stimulus measurement and assessment research (ASMAR) include the advertising industry's implementation of various testing methods, the dilemma associated with the method selection and some of the guidelines suggested in advertising community for an appropriate method selection, and the role of theory in guiding ASMAR methods. Major issues in the field are identified and future directions are suggested.
55. Lewis, Ian M., "Do Concept Scores Measure the Message or the Method?" Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (February/March, 1984), 54-57.
This paper addresses the issue of contextual effects in the copy testing. Citing inconsistent concept scores between results of a two-phase test (concept only and concept/product test) conducted for a product category, the author warns of biases attributable to the method rather than the message.
56. MacLachlan, James and Pradeep Jalan, "The Effect of Pre-Questions on Advertising Recall," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 14, (1, 1985), 18-22, 49.
Results indicate that the recall of brand name for advertised products substantially increases when advertisements are preceded by questions concerning facts, ambiguous or unfamiliar phrases, incomplete versions of a slogan, or questions encouraging a personal connection.
57. MacLachlan, James and John G. Myers, "Using Response Latency to Identify Commercials That Motivate," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (October/November, 1983), 51-57.
Response time measured by computer recording is used to examine the ability of commercials to motivate consumers to buy the advertised product. TV commercials for three product categories--cola beverage, bath soaps, and Ketchsup--are used in an experiment conducted with a sample of housewives. Analysis of response latency data using a refined version of AVD (affective value distance), a method of analyzing latencies to paired- comparison questions, suggests that when response latency is coupled with paired-comparison data, it has greater discriminatory power than other measures and AVD can show physically (graphically) the change in positioning of a brand vis-a-vis competitive brands.
58. Miller, James B., Norman T. Bruvold, and Jerome B. Kernan, "Does Competitive- Set Information Affect the Results of Concept Tests?," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 27, (April/May, 1987),16-24.
The research examines the impact of presenting additional competitive data in a concept test on consumer response. This study consists of 480 dog owners selected via mall-intercepts who are either shown a film execution of a new product concept for a dog food and a fact board showing package size, price, and other product information (in the standard group) or given additional information regarding competitive brands as well. Results of the study indicate that respondents exposed to additional competitive-set information tend to show higher purchase intention levels than those who are given no competitive information, while no significant difference exists between these two groups on the measure called "eventual trial (ET)" used by BASES system of Burke Marketing Inc.
59. Neelankavil, James P., John V. O'Brien, and Richard Tashjian, "Techniques to Obtain Market-related Information from Very Young Children," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 25, (June/July, 1985), 41-47.
This article presents an approach for obtaining meaningful qualitative information from 5- and 6-year-old children. The method called "VATAYC" (verbal advertising testing among young children) involves children as well as their mothers who are questioned separately from their children. The procedure is described as applied in a study conducted for a leading marketer of children's products. Analysis of data obtained suggests the usefulness of the technique in assessing young children's response to the commercial.
60. Plummer, Joseph T., "The Role of Copy Research in Multinational Advertising," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 26, (October/November, 1986), 11-15.
The author emphasizes a need to treat cross-cultural advertising in a new way. Suggestions regarding test setting, focus of the testing and coordination of the research and creative team are made based on case experience and comments from sources around the world. An approach that could be useful in many cross-cultural advertising testing situations is also presented.
61. Preston, Ivan L., "Contrasting Types of Advertising Content---A Case of Terminology Gone Wild." Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, 1987, R25-R30.
The article examines a number of pairs of terms that have been used to describe advertising claims, such as objective-subjective, factual-evaluative, etc. It is concluded that the numerous pairs of terms can be represented by a total of four types of advertising claims with an enhanced descriptive ability.
62. Puto, Christopher P. and William D. Wells, "Informational and Transformational Advertising: The Differential Effects of Time." Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 638-43.
This paper provides conceptual definitions of and theoretical foundations for informational and transformational advertising. Theoretical propositions regarding their differential effects of repeated exposure are also presented. A method consisting of 23 item-scales for measuring the informational and transformational levels of ads are developed and empirically tested for its reliability and validity in a laboratory experiment involving 130 students and 13 actual television commercials. The results of the study demonstrate the reliability and validity of the method.
63. Rothschild, Michael L., Esther Thorson, Byron Reeves, Judith E. Hirsch and Robert Goldstein, "EEG Activity and the Processing of Television Commercials," Communication Research, Vol. 13, (April, 1986), 182-220.
The paper addresses complexities and problems associated with psychophysiological measures with a review of the literature on the subject. An experiment is conducted with 83 female adults, which is designed to relate the structure of television commercials for low involvement, unfamiliar products and memory for the commercials to continuously recorded EEGs of viewers. The results show correlations between level of EEG activity and the traditional memory measures such as recall ann recognition and affect measures. Practical implications of the results for advertisers are presented. The usefulness as well as methodological problems and issues are discussed of EEG measures.
64. Schumann, David W., "Failure to Account for the Effects of 'Filler Ads': An Unexplored Concern for Advertising Researchers." Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, 1987, R83-R85.
The paper raises the issue of the effects of manipulated factors in the experimental ads confounding with filler ads or other ads surrounding them. To address the issue, an empirical investigation is conducted with a sample of college students using experimental ads with varying levels of argument strength and a group of filler ads developed professionally or by amateurs. The findings demonstrate that an element of one ad can influence a viewer's attitude toward other products he/she sees within the viewing environment. Results are discussed in the context of what is known as "contrast" effect in psychology.
65. Singh, Surendra N. and Gilbert A. Churchill, Jr., "Using the Theory of Signal Detection to Improve Ad Recognition Testing," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 23, (November, 1986), 327-36.
The paper describes the theory of signal detection which can be used to secure estimates of memory uncontaminated by the response biases. The potential usefulness of the theory for ad recognition testing is examined in two experiments designed to test several propositions derived from the theory. It is suggested that the signal detection theory may serve a useful tool for improving ad recognition tests. The paper also discusses potential application areas and limitations of the theory in assessing the effectiveness of advertising.
66. Singh, Surendra N. and Gilbert A. Churchill, Jr., "Response-Biase-Free Recognition Tests to Measure Advertising Effects," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 27, (April/May, 1987), 23-36.
The paper discusses the problems of respondent tendencies associated with advertising recognition testing and proposes an approach based on the theory of signal detection (TSD), which can improve advertising recognition testing. The theory of signal detection and the methods of deriving nonmetric indices of response bias and sensitivity are described. An application of the approach is illustrated with hypothetical data.
67. Singh, Surendra N. and Catherine A. Cole, "Forced-Choice Recognition Tests: A Critical Review," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 14, (3, 1985), 52-58.
With a brief review of the past efforts to obtain a better recognition measure, the authors evaluate the usefulness of forced-choice recognition testing as a means of eliminating response bias. Issues to consider when a forced- choice measure is used in an advertising context are discussed.
68. Singh, Surendra N. and Michael L. Rothschild, "Recognition as a Measure of Learning from Television Commercials," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 20, (August, 1983), 235-48.
The paper discusses the distinction between recall and recognition and some methodological problems associated with each. A measure which uses a large number of distractors in the multiple-alternative forced-choice recognition test and tests recognition after a delay is developed and tested in an empirical study involving 211 undergraduates. The research uses as stimuli actual 30-second commercials (and the edited versions) for three low-involvement products that have not been aired in the experimental locale. Results of the study are shown to demonstrate the discriminability and sensitivity of the recognition measure. Implications of the findings are discussed for media strategy and copy testing.
69. Stewart, David W., Sid Hecker and John L. Graham, "It's More Than What You Say: Assessing the Influence of Nonverbal Communication in Marketing," Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 4, (4, 1987), 303-22.
The paper reviews research on nonverbal communication and discusses relevant theoretical perspectives and issues as they relate to advertising and personal selling. In the context of advertising, a particular attention is given to conceptual and methodological approaches to studying nonverbal cues in ads. Future applications of the extant knowledge regarding nonverbal communication and directions for research are also discussed.
70. Stewart, David W., David H. Furse and Randall P. Kozak, "A Guide to Commercial Copytesting Services," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 6, (1, 1983), 1-43.
The paper presents a framework for describing the research procedures employed by twenty commercial copytesting services. Based on the framework, the promotional and technical information collected through a mail request is reviewed using four criteria (the characteristics of the sample, exposure, measurement, and data). The authors point out the difficulty in making meaningful comparisons among competing techniques, due to the selection bias in the information provided, and incomplete or no information on the validity and reliability of methods employed. Guidelines for the reporting of information about copytesting methods are suggested.
71. Stewart, David W., Connie Pechmann, Srinivasan Ratneshwar, Jon Stroud and Beverly Bryant, "Methodological and Theoretical Foundations of Advertising Copytesting: A Review," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 8, (2, 1985), 1-74.
The paper provides a detailed review of four broad classes of copytesting measures presented in the literature, focusing on the measurement and evaluation of broadcasting advertising. The classes of measures reviewed include measures of memory for the advertising stimulus, attitudinal and intention measures, measures of cognitive response, and measures of choice behavior. Issues to be resolved concerning the measurement of advertising effects are also discussed.
72. Thorson, Esther and Marian Friestad, "A Microanalysis of the Advertising Communication Process," Proceedings of the 1985 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Nancy Stephens, 1985, R32-36.
A micro-analytic approach to studying advertising communication process is presented which substitutes a memory-based model of viewer response stages for McGuire's model of persuasion and examines the effects of message content and structure variables on the processing stage of the model. The merits of the approach are discussed, along with theoretical and practical implications.
73. Thorson, Esther and Rita Snyder, "Viewer Recall of Television Commercials: Prediction from the Propositional Structure of Commercial Scripts," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 21, (May, 1984), 127-36.
This paper presents a psycholinguistically based model for predicting the viewer's recall of a television commercial based from the propositional structure of the commercial scripts. The predictive utility of the model is demonstrated in its application involving 19 commercials differing in length, execution, etc. and a total of 941 viewer protocols of immediate or day-after recall.
74. Trebbi, George G., Jr. and Edward J. Flesch, "Single versus Multiple Concept Tests," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (June/July, 1983), 21-26.
The concurrent validity of two approaches to testing new-product concepts is assessed. The study, using 11 household product concepts and a consumer mail-panel method, shows that single versus multiple concept evaluations do not yield comparable results. Strong potential biases on evaluation ratings are suggested for testing concepts in a multiple context.
75. Weiberg, Peter and Franz-Josef Konert, "Emotional Facial Expressions in Advertising," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 607- 11.
This study attempts to determine whether the pre-setting of criteria for the mimical presentation of emotions can lead to more valid evaluation of ads than histrionic intuition alone. A set of criteria for the non-verbal presentation of emotional facial expressions is applied in an experiment involving 80 subjects. Results show that specific emotions can be defined by a set of categories for the mimicry in advertising.
76. Weinstein, Sidney, Ronald Drozdenko, and Curt Weinstein, "Advertising Evaluation Using Brain-Wave Measures: A Response to the Question of Validity," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (April/May, 1984), 67-70.
The utility of brain-wave measures for message selection and evaluation of advertising is discussed. The authors, responding to the criticism made by Katz regarding the methodology of brain-wave recordings, emphasize that a potentially useful research tool should not be cast aside.
77. Young, Charles E. and Michael Robinson, "GuidelineSM: Tracking the Commercial Viewer's Wandering Attention," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 27, (June/July, 1987),15-22.
This article presents a technique for quantifying consumer attention on a frame-by-frame basis to television commercials. As part of a standard copy test, the diagnostic technique called GuidelineSM involves the viewer sorting through a sample of still photographs taken from the commercial. The method is described with an illustrative case, together with findings of studies that have employed the technique and their relationship with recall.
78. Young, Elliot, "Visibility Achieved by Outdoor Advertising," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (August/September, 1984), 19-21.
This article provides insights into the attention-getting ability of outdoor advertising based on the findings from Perception Services Research. Two hundred drivers are photographed using eye tracking devices, while viewing a 27-minute drive sequence video containing more than 200 boards, bulletin and other outdoor advertising units. Data from eyetracking and recall measures show that recall scores may not be an appropriate indicator of attention levels generated by advertising executions. Results also indicate that clutter affects the attention levels of outdoor advertising.
79. Zeitlin, David M. and Richard A. Westwood, "Measuring Emotional Response," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 26, (October/November, 1986), 34-44.
The article discusses various aspects of human emotion and presents for emotional response a measurement system using verbal rating scales, which is drawn heavily from Plutchik's eight-variable theory of emotion. Eight patterns of emotional communications, such as sentimentality (acceptance plus joy) and love that product, hate that ad (acceptance, joy, or anticipation, plus anger and disgust), are discussed with related examples of commercials.
80. Zinkhan, George and Edward Blair, "An Assessment of the Cloze Procedure As an Advertising Copy Test," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 61 (2, 1984), 404-8.
This paper assess reliability and usefulness of the cloze procedure as an advertising copy testing technique. The procedure is first tested in a variety of application situations with a sample of target consumers for product categories such as cola, hotel, etc. Three different modes of ads (print ads, radio commercials, and promotional letters) are used. Results of the coefficient alpha measure indicate that the procedure may not be highly reliable with a a mean of .65 across the six application situations. Some evidence is provided, however, for predictive validity of the cloze procedure in a separate experiment by showing the cloze scores being able to differentiate an ad with a high recall score from that of a low one.
81. Zinkhan, George M., Betsy D. Gelb, and Claude R. Martin, "The Cloze Procedure," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (June/July, 1983), 15- 20.
A model hypothesizing the positive relationship between the ability of the audience to predict what comes next in an ad and ad liking or message recall is tested in an experiment conducted with 525 adults. Twenty-one print ads for a variety of products and services are used. The study employes the "cloze" procedure, a measurement tool for the ability to predict the structure of an ad, which involves asking subjects to "close up" the gaps (blanks) in an ad message and to write their guesses about missing words. After completing the procedure, an aided day-after recall is measured. The hypothesized relationships among the three measures are supported in the study. Various uses of the cloze procedure in an advertising testing context and directions for future research are discussed.
III. VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF ADVERTISEMENTS
A. MESSAGE APPEALS
82. Aaker, David A., Douglas M. Stayman and Michael R. Hagerty, "Warmth in Advertising: Measurement, Impact, and Sequence Effects," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 12, (March, 1986), 365-81.
The effects of the feeling of warmth created by a TV commercial are explored in a series of three studies. The first study examines the relationship between warmth as measured by the "warmth monitor" and arousal as measured by skin response. The "warmth monitor" involves a respondent moving a pencil to the right or left, while watching the commercial, to indicate how warm his or her feelings are. The other two studies investigate the effects of warmth on such advertising response variables as liking of the ad and purchase likelihood through testing ads with warmth against ads employing other appeals such as humor. The impact of exposure sequence is also examined on the warmth response and other response measures. The results indicate that warmth is a positive, volatile emotion involving physiological arousal, and is positively related to attitudes toward the ad and purchase intentions. The reliability, validity, and sensitivity of the construct warmth are discussed.
83. Belch, George E. and Michael A. Belch, "An Investigation of the Effects of Repetition on Cognitive and Affective Reactions to Humorous and Serious Television Commercials," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 4-10.
A laboratory experiment involving184 undergraduates is conducted with type of message (humorous vs. serious) and exposure level (one, three, or five). Two additional five-exposure conditions are used whereby the stimulus commercial (humorous or serious) is seen three times and another commercial (serious or humorous) is shown twice. 30-second "Federal Express" television commercials that had not been aired for at least six months prior to the experiment are used. The dependent measures include cognitive responses, message recall, advertiser credibility, attitude toward the ad as well as the service, and usage intention. The results indicate differences in the pattern of effects due to repetition for the two types of messages. Findings also indicate that wearout due to high levels of exposure can be reduced by the use of varied message execution, particularly for a humorous commercial.
84. Choi, Young and Esther Thorson, "Memory for Factual, Emotional, and Balanced Ads Under Two Instructional Sets," Proceedings of the 1983 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Donald W. Jugenheimer, 1983, 160- 164.
This paper presents results from an empirical study which investigates the effects on recall and recognition performance of ads using three types of appeals (emotional, rational, and emotional/rational balanced) under two instructional conditions--directing subjects' attention to ads (intentional instruction) or to surrounding programming (incidental instruction). Sixty- four undergraduate students are exposed to actual television commercials for inexpensive and commonly purchased products which are embedded in two 30-minute programs. Findings indicate that type of appeal has differential effects varying by the memory task and the kind of information to be retrieved (such as brand name, ad claim, and execution). This study also finds a significant effect of instruction type on recall, but not on recognition.
85. Duncan, Calvin P. and James E. Nelson, "Effects of Humor in a Radio Advertising Experiment," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 14, (2, 1985), 33-40, 64.
Distinguishing perceived humor from manipulated humor, this study finds significant effects of perceived humor on attention to the ad, liking the ad, liking the product, and irritation experienced from the ad. The perceived humor is found to have little impact on counterarguments, product-related beliefs, buying intention, experience of distraction, or recall of selling points.
86. Duncan, Calvin P., James E. Nelson and Nancy T. Frontczak, "The Effect of Humor on Advertising Comprehension," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 432-37.
This research examines the impact of humor on message comprehension by focusing on type of humor measurement (manipulate vs. perceived) and humor location in the ad. The study is conducted with 157 male undergraduates who are exposed to 60-second radio commercials for a hypothetical brand of men's hair care product. Results of the study indicate that the perceived humor promotes message comprehension and offer support for information processing and operant conditioning views of the humor influence process. Findings also argue for the importance of distinguishing between the perceived and manipulated humor.
87. Gardner, Meryl Paula and Frederick O. Wilhelm, Jr., "Consumer Responses to Ads with Positive vs. Negative Appeals: Some Mediating Effects of Content- Induced Mood and Congruency Between Context and Ad," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 10, (1, 1987), 81-98.
This study investigates the influence of mood-inducing context on the persuasiveness of appeals of different types. A laboratory experiment is conducted with 225 undergraduates who are asked to read a mood-related story. Mockup print ads with only verbal contents are used as stimuli. Results indicate that the positive context-induced mood is associated with more favorable evaluations than the negative mood elicited. Also indicated are that affect is influenced by the interaction of context-induced mood and type of appeals, and that ad affect mediates such effect. Implications for the development of theory, applications, and future research are discussed.
88. Garramone, Gina M., "Voter Response to Negative Political Ads," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 61, (2, 1984), 250-59.
The perceived truthfulness of negative political advertising and the impact of the advertising on feelings toward the sponsor and target of the ad is examined in a study of voters of varying candidate preference, levels of involvement and demographic characteristics. Telephone interviews are conducted with 211 voters randomly drawn from a university community, who reported having seen the negative political ad of interest. Results indicate that the level of perceived truthfulness differs among commercials with different content of themes, and that boomerang may be the more common type of negative advertising. The study also suggest the interaction of the perception and feelings with the political involvement, prior candidate preference, and certain demographics of the voter.
89. Gelb, Betsy D. and Charles M. Pickett, "Attitude-toward-the-Ad: Links to Humor and to Advertising Effectiveness," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 12 (2, 1983), 34- 42.
Using an ad for a smoking cessation kit, relationships among attitude toward the ad, perceived humor in the ad, and four measures of advertising effectiveness (attitude toward the sponsor/brand, credibility, persuasiveness, and purchase intention) are examined in a mail survey to a random sample of licenced drivers, smokers or non-smokers. Results indicate that if an ad is perceived as humorous, all others being equal, it is more likely to be associated with a favorable Aad. While the study finds a significant association of Aad with all the effectiveness measures, perceived humor is found to be significantly associated only with the sponsor's image.
90. Gelb, Betsy D. and George M. Zinkhan, "Humor and Advertising Effectiveness After Repeated Exposures to a Radio Commercial," Journal of Advertising,Vol. 15 (2, 1986), 15-20, 34.
A hypothetical model regarding the impact of humor is developed and tested on such response variables as recall, attitudes, purchase intention and actual behavior. Results show the humor is negatively related to recall and positively related to brand attitudes. No consistent relationship of humor is found with purchase probability or choice behavior.
91. Golden, Linda L. and Mark I. Alpert, "Comparative Analysis of the Relative Effectiveness of One- and Two-Sided Communication for Contrasting Products," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16, (1, 1987), 18-25, 68.
The relative impact of two message types, one- and two-sided messages, on consumer perceptions and purchasing intentions is investigated in an experimental setting. This study consists of a sample of adults identified in pilot research as a potential target for the products being examined - mass transit and a fictitious brand of deodorant. Results indicate that while two- sided messages yield higher purchase intentions for deodorant, as well as higher advertising evaluations, they have no significant impact on perceptions of key product attributes and behavioral intentions for mass transit.
92. Kamins, Michael A. and Henry Assael, "Two-Sided Versus One-Sided Appeals: A Cognitive Perspective on Argumentation, Source Derogation, and the Effect of Disconfirming Trial on Belief Change," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 24, (February, 1987), 29-39.
Two experiments involving student subjects and print ad stimuli are conducted to investigate the effects of ads differing in sidedness on cognitive response and belief change. The first experiment is designed to test the predictions derived from inoculation and correspondence theory about the impact of one-sided, two-sided refutational, two-sided non-refutational message appeals on cognition in the absence of product trial. Results provide partial support for both theories as two-sided appeals produce significantly less counterargumentation and source derogation than the one- sided appeal, but the two do not differentially affect cognitions. Results from the second experiment where a disconfirming product trial experience is introduced as a "counterattack" condition, offer no evident dominance of the predictions of one theory over those of the other in terms of attribute-based beliefs changes. No significant differences are found between subjects exposed to either two-sided appeal.
93. Kohn, Paul M., Reginald G. Smart and Alan C. Ogborne, "Effects of Two Kinds of Alcohol Advertising on Subsequent Consumption," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 13, (1, 1984), 34-40, 48.
The relative effect of "lifestyle" versus "tombstone" ads for alcoholic beverages on subsequent consumption is investigated in an experiment with a sample of males intercepted in a shopping mall, ascertained to be drinkers. Actual magazine ads for an imported beer are used. Subjects' alcohol consumption is measured first by their use of a $5.00 voucher for immediate use in a licensed restaurant and by subsequent telephone contact representing an independent survey about beverage consumption several weeks after the experiment. Results indicate that neither lifestyle nor tombstone ads have any impact, immediate or delayed, on any category of alcohol consumption or subjects' evaluation of ads
94. Liu, Scott S. and Patricia A. Stout, "Effects of Message Modality and Appeal on Advertising Acceptance," Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 4, (3, 1987), 167-88.
The research investigates the impact of message modes (Audiovisual vs. audio-only) and appeals (factual vs. emotional) on consumer responses to advertising in an experiment with 98 undergraduates. Alternative process models are also tested which describe the causal relationships among emotional response, cognitive response, attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand. Actual television commercials for a brand of coffee and a long distance services are used as the experimental stimuli. Results of the study reveals differential impact of modality as well as message appeals on consumer's emotional and cognitive responses generate during advertising exposure.
95. Merritt, Sharyne, "Negative Political Advertising: Some Empirical Findings," Journal of Advertising, Vol.13, (3, 1984), 27-38.
The effects of negative political advertising appeals are examined in an actual election by means of a survey with constituents of a state Assembly district where candidates employed negative appeals. Results indicate that negative political advertising evokes negative affect toward both the targeted opponent and the sponsor. This study also suggests that negative advertising is likely to encourage counterarguing and source derogation among party loyalists on the opponent side and is not likely to be effective for a minority party candidate.
96. Moore, David J., Richard Reardon, and Francis T. Durso, "The Generation Effect in Advertising Appeals," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (ed.), Richard J. Lutz, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1985, 117-20.
This paper reviews the research related to the generation effect (referring to the greater memorability of internally-generated vs. externally-presented stimuli). The results of two experiments are presented to demonstrate some of the conditions under which the generation effect is likely to occur and the generalizability of the generation effect to a broadcast advertising context. The implications are discussed for research and practice.
97. Mueller, Barbara, "Reflections of Culture: An Analysis of Japanese and American Advertising Appeals," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 27, (June/July, 1987), 51-59.
In an attempt to asses the extent to which either traditional or modern values exist in Japanese ads vis-a-vis U.S. ads a content analysis is conducted with 378 full-color full-page ads taken from one general interest news magazine and one women's magazine for each country. Results of the analysis reveal various differences between the Japanese and American ads. The differences observed are shown to be differences in degree, not in kind.
98. Sutherland, John C. and Lisa A. Middleton, "The Effect of Humor on Advertising Credibility and Recall," Proceedings of the 1983 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Donald W. Jugenheimer, 1983, 17-21.
The effects of pun and nonsensical humor on advertising recall and message credibility as measured by two major dimensions-- authoritativeness and charactor--are examined among a sample of undergraduate students. Actual print ads for two different products are used as experimental stimuli. Results indicate that subjects perceive the "nonsensical" ad less credible than its serious version, while the "pun" and its serious counterpart do not differ in perceived credibility. In terms of recall, no difference is found between humorous and nonhumorous ads.
99. Sutherland, John C. and Sudha Sethu, "The Effect of Humor on Television Advertising Credibility and Recall." Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, 1987, R3-R8.
The effect of nonsensical humor on recall and perceived message credibility is investigated in an experiment conducted with 219 college students. The study uses actual television commercials employing humorous appeals for familiar as well as unfamiliar products with the straight versions created by removing the humorous components of the commercials. Results indicate that humor is no more effective than a straight commercial in generating recall and message credibility.
B. SOURCES, ENDORSERS, MODELS
100. Atkin, Charles and Martin Block, "Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsers," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (February/March, 1983), 57-61.
This study investigates the influence of celebrity sources in the alcohol advertising context. Print ads for three alcoholic beverages are used in an experiment. The sample consists of a total of 196 teenagers and adults with various characteristics. Results indicate ads featuring celebrity figures produce more favorable ad evaluation ratings and product image, but not believability of the ad or the likelihood of actually purchasing the product.
101. Bush, Alan J., William C. Moncrief and Valarie A. Ziethaml, "Source Effects in Professional Services Advertising," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 10, (1, 1987), 153-171.
The impact of types of spokesperson and profession on the perceived credibility of doctors, lawyers, dentists, and chiropractors are assessed using a 3 (type of spokesperson) x 4 (type of professional) between-subjects factorial design. A sample of 343 undergraduate students view a 30-second test commercial (treatment) and other actual commercials ("fillers"). Credibility is measured on eight seven-point bipolar scales. Results indicate that the profession has a more important effect on perceived credibility than does the spokesperson. It is also found that different spokespeople are perceived more credible in different professions, suggesting that TV ads for professional service groups be based on profession-specific criteria.
102. Caballero, Majorie J. and William M. Pride, "Selected Effects of Salesperson Sex and Attractiveness in Direct Mail Advertisements," Journal of Marketing, Vol. 48, (Winter, 1984), 94-100.
The impact of physical attractiveness of a sales representative used in an ad and the sex of the spokesperson and its interaction with the sex of the receiver are investigated. The study consists of 2140 individuals actually ordering the product advertised (a book containing religious material) among a sample of 30,000 subscribers to a religious magazine who received the direct mail ad. Results show that only the ad featuring a highly attractive female and the ad without any stimulus person are likely to lead to purchase of the product advertised.
103. Coughlin, Maureen and P. J. O'Connor, "Gender Role Portrayals in Advertising: An Individual Difference Analysis," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, (eds.), Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1984, 238-41.
This study explores consumer reactions to the changing role portrayal in advertising. The effect of two consumer characteristics (personality and attitudes toward the role of women in society) are also examined on reactions to the divergent roles displayed in ads. Data for 420 personal interviews with men and women living in New York city are used for analysis. Purchase intentions either for a fictitious brand of mouthwash are measured after shown print ads portraying the female model either in a traditional role or in a nontraditional role. Results suggest that personality characteristics are a significant factor in explaining purchase intent as a function of the female roles featured in ads.
104. Czepiec, Helena and J. Steven Kelly, "Analyzing Hispanic Roles in Advertising: A Portrait of an Emerging Subculture," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 6, (1, 1983), 219-240.
The article examines how Hispanics are portrayed in advertising through a content analysis contrasting two major components--characteristics of the models and values expressed in the ads--between selected Hispanic magazines and general Anglo magazines directed at or having a high readership among Hispanics. Results indicate that the portrayal of Hispanics differs in many ways between Hispanic magazines and Anglo counterparts.
105. Debevec, Kathleen and Easwar Iyer, "The Influence of Spokespersons in Altering a Product's Gender Image: Implications for Advertising Effectiveness," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 15, (4,1986), 12-20.
This study examines the influence of the spokesperson's gender on advertising response variables such as the perceived image of a product and/or message and the extent to which an individual's sex and gender orientation affect his/her responses to gendered advertising portrayals. Results suggest that a spokesperson's gender can not only alter a product's gender image, but can result in more positive attitudes and product usage intention when the gender of the spokesperson and the product's gender differ.
106. DeSarbo, Wayne, S. and Richard A. Harshman, "Celebrity-Brand Congruence Analysis," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 8, (1, 1985), 17-52.
This paper proposes a method for uncovering the perceptual-cognitive overtones of both product and spokespersons, and examines their relationships. The authors demonstrate an application of the PARAFAC three-way factor analysis procedure to individuals' associative judgments (measured on a set of semantic differential scales) through an illustrative study designed to determine which celebrities are more appropriate to endorse particular makes of U.S. automobiles. Other applications and limitations of the method are also discussed in detail.
107. England, Paula and Teresa Gardner, "Sex Differentiation in Magazine Advertisements: A Content Analysis Using Log-Linear Modeling," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 6, (1, 1983), 253-268.
Log-linear modeling is used to examine differences in the portrayals of men and women and whether the sex differentiation in magazine ads decreased between 1960 and 1979. Two thousand ads appearing during 1960-1979 in Vogue, Ladies Home Journal, Playboy, and Time are content analyzed along four dimensions: age, activity, occupation and product use. The study finds considerable sex-typing in ads, and little change in the extent of sex-typing during the period. Comparing portrayals in ads with data on Americans' behavior, the authors conclude that ads portray more sex differentiation than is actually present in American men's and women's real-life roles. Policy implications of results are discussed.
108. Fennell, Geraldine and Susan Weber, "Avoiding Sex Role Stereotypes in Advertising: What Questions should We Ask?," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 88-93.
As potentially controversial elements in female role portrayals in advertising, the paper identifies a number of dimensions to be studied in future research on female role portrayal:
109. Festervand, Troy A. and James R. Lumpkin, "Response of Elderly Consumers to Their Portrayal by Advertisers," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 8, (1, 1985), 203-226.
The attitudes toward their portrayal in ads and the impact of these attitude on buying behavior are measured among 271 elderly consumers. Results indicate that the elderly have negative attitudes toward their portrayal in ads. The study further indicates that the inaccurate portrayal of the elderly in ads may result in the limited boycotting of some products, particularly among the elderly described as being heavy viewers of television, active, and older on the average.
110. Freiden, Jon B., "Advertising Spokesperson Effects: An Examination of Endorser Type and Gender on Two Audiences," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 24, (October/November, 1984), 33-40.
The effects of the type and gender of the spokesperson and the age of the consumers are examined in an experiment utilizing a 4x2x2 factorial design. The endorser types used are a celebrity, CEO, typical consumer and an expert. The sample consists of undergraduate students (younger consumers) at the university and older adults drawn from a variety of civic and cultural organizations. Versions of a magazine ad are examined in terms of their performance on such response variables as source evaluations, perceived product quality, and buying intention. Findings indicate that the effectiveness of spokespersons differs depending on the response variables of interest, and that distinct consumer segments (older versus younger) respond to spokespersons in different ways. The gender of the endorser is found to have little impact on consumer response.
111. Gagnard, Alice, "From Feast to Famine: Depiction of Ideal Body Type in Magazine Advertising: 1950-1984." Proceedings of the 1986 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Ernest F. Larkin, 1986, R46-R50.
The paper reports findings from a content analysis of female models portrayed in a sample of 961 ads taken from women's magazines issued in 1950, 1960, 1970 and 1984. The study reveals a marked increase in the past two decades toward using models of thin body types. According to "Yendex," a desirability scale, thin models are viewed as most attractive and successful whereas overweight and obese models are judged happiest.
112. Garramone, Gina M. and Sandra J. Smith, "Reactions to Political Advertising: Clarifying Sponsor Effects," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 61, (4, 1984), 771-75.
This study examines the effects of ad sponsor characteristics (the candidate him/herself vs. an independent source) and the voter's partisanship on the perceived trustworthiness of the sponsor, candidate image and commercial evaluation. The process by which these effects occur is also investigated in an experiment conducted with 112 undergraduatestudents. Versions of an actual negative political television commercial are used as test stimuli. Results indicate that only for those reported highly dependent on political advertising in making up their mind about the candidate to vote for, an independent commercial sponsor is perceived more trustworthy than a candidate sponsor, and the commercial itself is evaluated more positively. For these subjects, sponsor independence and voter partisanship are found to affect the targeted candidate's image indirectly via perception of sponsor trustworthiness, which in turn impacts upon commercial evaluation.
112. Humphrey, Ronald and Howard Schuman, "The Portrayal of Blacks in Magazine Advertisements: 1950-1982," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 48, (3, 1984), 551- 63.
The frequency and social characteristics of blacks as portrayed in ads taken from issues of Time, Newsweek and Ladies Home Journal in 1950 and1979 thru 1982 are compared those of whites. Results of the content analysis indicate advertisers now display blacks at work in equal status with whites. In other ways, however, ads show blacks as dependent on whites: White authorities are disproportionately shown aiding poor blacks or supervising black children. Findings are interpreted as reflecting whites' attitudes toward blacks.
113. Kahle, Lynn R. and Pamela M. Homer, "Physical Attractiveness of the Celebrity Endorser: A Social Adaptation Perspective," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (March, 1985), 954-961.
An experiment is conducted with a sample of 200 undergraduate students to test the effect of the celebrity source in ads on recall, recognition, attitudes and purchase intentions. The authors attempt to replicate Petty et al.'s 1983 study of the source effectiveness following the procedure Petty et al. employed and using a print ad for the same brand of razor. Unlike Petty et al., the likability and attractiveness dimensions are differentiated in this study. Three factors manipulated include celebrity-source physical attractiveness, celebrity-source likability, and consumer product involvement. Attitudes and purchase intentions are found to change due to celebrity-source attractiveness, but not celebrity-source likability. The results are interpreted as supporting social adaptation theory.
114. Keenan, Kevin L., "Sex As a Variable in Political Advertising," Proceedings of the 1985 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Nancy Stephens, 1985, R128-31.
The effects of voter sex, source sex, and candidate sex in political advertising are explored in a field experiment with 80 male and female eligible voters in Athens, Georgia. The research uses 30-second radio commercials with voice-only sources and fictitiously named candidates. Results of the study show that sex of source has a significant effect on perceived source credibility and evaluation of the candidate with female source producing higher scores on both scales.
115. Kilbourne, William E., "An Exploratory Study of Sex Roles in Advertising and Women's Perceptions of Managerial Attributes in Women," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 84-87.
This study investigates the effect of sex role portrayal (housewife vs. professional) in magazine ads on women's perceptions of their managerial attributes relative to men's. An experiment is conducted with 77 female college students using mock-up ads for fictitious brands of products. Sex role stereotypes in magazine ads are shown to affect women's perceptions of managerial attributes in women such that respondents exposed to professional role ads evaluate males as possessing more managerial attributes than women exposed to the housewife role ads.
116. Klebba, Joanne M., "Message-Evoked Role Associations Generated From Print Advertising: An Exploratory Study." Proceedings of the 1986 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Ernest F. Larkin, 1986, R51-R56.
To identify the existence of various types of ad-evoked role associations an exploratory study is conducted with a sample of college students. Authentic print ads differing in the degree of explicit/nonexplicit/nonrole portrayal are used as stimuli, and responses are elicited via a thought verbalization technique. The content analysis of the cognitive responses indicate that respondents produce various role associations evoked by the advertising messages with explicit role portrayals eliciting more role associations than nonexplicit and nonrole portrayals. Practical implications and future research directions are presented.
117. Langmeyer, Lynn, "Senior Citizens and Television Advertisements: A Research Note," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 7, (1, 1984), 167-178.
An experiment is conducted among members of a Senior Citizen Center in a mid-western city to explore elderly people's perceptions of role portrayals in prime-time television commercials selected through a content analysis of 518 commercials for nationally advertised products. Results indicate that stereotyped portrayals of elderly people in television commercials are neutral and inoffensive to the elderly people watching them.
118. Leigh, Thomas W., Arno J. Rethans, and Tamatha Reichenbach Whitney, "Role Portrayals of Women in Advertising: Cognitive Responses and Advertising Effectiveness," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 27, (October/November, 1987), 54-63.
This paper examines the effects of women's role portrayal among two groups of women with different role orientation. A laboratory experiment is conducted with 87 women employing a 2 (role portrayal; traditional/modern) X 2 (role orientation (traditional/modern) between subject design. Commercials, in a storyboard form, for a frozen-food entree are used as test stimuli. Findings indicate that advertising effectiveness, as measured by attitude toward the ad, the spokesperson, and toward buying the product, is enhanced when role portrayals are consistent with the role orientation of the receiver. The study also suggests that the effect of role portrayals tend to be mediated by role-related cognitive response generated during the exposure to the ad. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
119. Melton, Gary Warren and Gilbert L. Fowler Jr., "Female Roles in Radio Advertising," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 64, (1, 1987), 145-49.
This study examines female role portrayal in radio commercials for various products and by time of the day the commercial is run. A content analysis is conducted with 2058 commercials drawn via a systematic sampling from the top two AM and FM stations of three markets. The study finds female presence in radio commercials to be virtually nonexistent comprising only 7% of the commercials studied. Results also indicate that when used in the ads, females are typically placed in consumer or worker roles and underrepresented in the areas of banking, employment and professional areas such as doctor and lawyer.
120. Moore, David J. and Richard Reardon, "Source Magnification: The Role of Multiple Sources in the Processing of Advertising Appeals," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 24, (November, 1987), 412-17.
This study attempts to determine whether the source magnification effects found in a previous study can apply to a print advertising context. Based on the previous study findings, a greater polarization of attitudes in response to strong vs. weak message argument/quality is hypothesized to occur when receivers are exposed to multiple sources rather than a single source. Mock-up print ads are used as stimuli in a laboratory experiment conducted with 80 students. Cognitive response and attitudes regarding the ad and product are measured. Results of the study support the hypothesized effect of source magnification in both attitudes and thoughts generated during the exposure to the ad.
121. Morris Louis A., David Brinberg, and Linda Plimpton, "Prescription Drug Information for Consumers: An Experiment of Source and Format," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 7, (1, 1984), 65-78.
This study examines how various sources and formats of presenting risk information in magazine advertisements for prescription drugs affect consumers' knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes. Ads for two fictitious brands of drugs are shown to 256 college students in an experimental setting. Results indicate that responses (what information is communicated and how it is interpreted) are differentially affected by the type of drugs and sources of the message.
122. Petty, Richard E. and John T. Cacioppo, "Source Factors and The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, (ed.), Thomas C. Kinnear, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1983, 668-72.
The paper discusses how the Elaboration Likelihood Model accounts for the effects of source factors in ads. Various empirical studies are described as they provide support for the propositions of the ELM for low, moderate, and high elaboration likelihood conditions (motivation and ability to process the message).
123. Reid, Leonard N. and Lawrence C. Soley, "Decorative Models and the Readership of Magazine Ads," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 23, (April/May, 1983), 27-31.
The effect of the model types used in magazine ads are examined on male readership of the ads. Using Starch "noted" and "read most" scores as the dependent variables, a sample of 126 Starch scored ads for cigarettes, liquor, and automobiles are analyzed. Results show that the "noting" of an ad by male readers is affected more by the presence of a decorative female model than the presence of the male only, male and female models together, or no human model. No such effect, however, is found in "read most" scores. The study also indicates that type of product differentially affects both the "noting" and "reading" of ads by male readers.
124. Reidenbach, R. Eric and Robert E. Pitts, "Not All CEOs are Created Equal as Advertising Spokespersons: Evaluating the Effective CEO Spokesperson," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 15, (1, 1986), 30-36, 46.
Actual print ads featuring the company CEO as the spokesperson are tested through a mail survey involving a sample of adult consumers. Response measures include source credibility, persuasiveness, and attitudes toward the ad, product/services, and company. Findings indicate that only under certain conditions should the CEO be used and that consumers' perception of the CEO, the advertised product, and the firm need to be taken into consideration for the effective use of the CEO as a spokesperson.
125. Sharits, Dean and H. Bruce Lammers, "Perceived Attributes of Models in Prime- Time and Daytime Television Commercials: A Person Perception Approach," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 20, (February, 1983), 64-73.
This paper examines the consumer's perceptions regarding female and male role portrayals in television commercials. A sample of male and female students are shown 128 randomly selected prime-time and daytime television commercials for a number of products aired on the three network stations in 1980. Following Schneider's person perception approach, a set of 13 social psychological attributes describing the model are used to measure the perceptions of the consumer. The results of the study indicate that perceptions of male and female models differ by time of airing and product category, but not by the viewer's sex. The study also suggests that the commercials do not portray women in a more negative way than they portray men. Results are discussed in their implications for advertisers.
126. Soley, Lawrence, "The Effect of Black Models on Magazine Ad Readership," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 60, (4, 1983), 686-90.
A sample of 93 Starch-scored ads (23 ads containing black male model, 29 showing white male models, and 41 presenting the product alone) are analyzed to examine the effect of using black models vis-a-vis white or no models. Results indicate that ads with black models do not differ from those using white or no models in Starch readership scores.
127. Soley, Lawrence C. and Leonard N. Reid, "Effects of Decorative Female Models on Ad Recognition Over Time," Proceedings of the 1983 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Donald W. Jugenheimer, 1983, 116- 119.
The effects of decorative female models are examined by comparing recognition for magazine ads from the 1950s with recognition for ads from the 1970s. Analyses of Starch scored ads, controlling for the influence of product category, indicate that in both decades, magazine ads with decorative female models present obtain significantly higher "noted" scores than ads without such models, but that the "read most" scores are not affected by the presence of female decorative models. This study also reveals that ad recognition is differentially affected by product type.
128. Speck, Paul Surgi, David W. Schumann and Craig Thompson, "Celebrity Endorsements--Scripts, Schema and Roles: Theoretical Framework and Preliminary Tests," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 15, (ed.), Michael J. Houston, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1987, 69-76.
A script- and schema-based model of celebrity endorsement influence is tested in an experiment with undergraduates employing a 2 (celebrity relatedness to product :expert vs. non-expert ) X 3(relational cue: expert vs. typical user vs. neutral) X 2 (processing time: 20 vs. 60 seconds) X 2 (product: car vs. tennis shoe) design. Results of the study are mixed, not fully supporting the proposed model. Findings are discussed from the script and schema processing perspectives.
129. Swartz, Teresa A., "Role Portrayal Preferences for Print Advertisements," Proceedings of the 1983 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Donald W. Jugenheimer, 1983, 112-115.
This study investigates the relationship between women's sex role orientations (traditional or modern, as measured by Bem Sex Role Inventory) and desired advertising role portrayals (traditional: homemakers, fashion objects, and sex objects; modern: career, athletic, or neutral roles). Print mockup ads for a variety of products are tested among eighty women between the ages of 18 and 65. Results of the study reveal that the role portrayal preferred is not dependent on subjects' role orientation. In addition, this study presents some evidence that a neutral role portrayal may provide advertisers of most products with the best spokesperson.
130. Swartz, Teressa A., "Relationship between Source Expertise and Source Similarity in an Advertising Context," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 13, (2,1984), 49-56.
To examine the relationship between source expertise and source similarity, print ads for fictitious brands of products are used in a laboratory experiment. The sample consists of female college students. Analysis of subjects' agreement with a set of statements depicting the source characteristics reveals no underlying relationship between source expertise and source similarity with each being a separate dimension independent of each other.
131. Swayne, Linda E. and Alan J. Greco, "The Portrayal of Older Americans in Television Commercials," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16, (1, 1987), 47-54.
The representation and role portrayal of senior citizens in television advertising are assessed through a content analysis of ads from three major television networks. Findings show underrepresentation of the elderly in television commercials across all of the three networks. It is also found that where elderly are used, they are not typically cast in major roles but instead portrayed most often in a home setting with members of other age groups present; and that when portrayed as major role advisors about a product or service, the advisor is more likely to be male.
132. Whipple, Thomas W. and Alice E. Courtney, "Female Role Portrayals in Advertising and Communication Effectiveness: A Review," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 14, (3, 1985), 4-8, 17.
A review of studies concerning the impact of model gender, female role portrayals and their interactions with the product category is presented. Effective role portrayals are found in the related studies to be a function of three factors--appropriate match between the gender of the depicted model and the gender image of the product, the setting of the portrayal, and the portrayal's liberatedness and realism--and the interactions of all of these factors. Implications for advertising and research are discussed.
133. Wilcox, Gary B., John H. Murphy and Peter S. Sheldon, "Effects of Attractiveness of the Endorser on the Performance of Testimonial Ads," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 62, (3, 1985), 548-52.
The research examines the effects of the attractiveness of male and female endorsers on the performance of a print testimonial ad across two different types of products (one related to attractiveness in product use and the other unrelated). The study is composed of 245 undergraduates who are exposed to the mock-up ads in a simulated magazine environment. findings indicate that physical attractiveness of the endorser influence the affective and conative dimensions of attitude, but not cognitive dimension. The study also reveals that for both products ads are evaluated highest in conative measure in the most attractive condition.
134. Zinkhan, George M., Keith K. Cox and Jae W. Hong, "Changes in Stereotypes: Blacks And Whites in Magazine Advertisements." Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 63, (3, 1986), 568-72.
A content analysis is undertaken to examine if any change has occurred in portraying black models in magazine ads since the previous studies covering the 1949-50 and 1967-68 periods on the same subject area. The analysis consists of 273 ads with black models present and a group of ads showing white models drawn from the issues of several general magazines published during the 1983-84 period. Results indicate a significant increase from the previous two periods to the 1983-84 period in the percentage of ads using black models as well as the percentage of blacks portrayed as skilled workers. The study also suggests that differences, while tending to decrease, exist in the ways the blacks and whites are portrayed in the magazine ads.
C. USAGE PATTERN OF CERTAIN CONTENT ELEMENTS
135. Aaker, David A., "Measuring the Information Content of Television Advertising," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 7, (1, 1984), 93-108.
This article discusses the limits of previous studies to measure informativeness, which have employed content analysis and consumer perceptions. A study using a mail questionnaire is conducted with a sample of experts as well as consumers regarding their judgments of the informativeness of TV commercials for 28 drugs and 28 automobiles. Results of the study indicate that the commercials are perceived by consumers as being informative and consumers' ability to evaluate the informativeness of commercials differs markedly by product. The study also suggests that in comparison to the consumers, the experts have a much lower opinion of the commercial's informativeness.
136. Benze, James G. and Eugene R. Declercq, "Content of Television Political Spot Ads for Female Candidates," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 62, (2, 1985), 278-82, 288.
The content of female candidates' political spot ads is examined and compared to the norm of male candidates in similar contests. The sample consists of 113 30-second television commercials run by 23 male and 23 female candidates in 1982 House, Senate and statewide races. The ads are coded in five general areas (partisanship, issue content, group references, candidate image and nature of negative advertising), each with a subset of categories. Regardless of gender, the candidate image is found to be given the greatest emphasis and partisanship the least in political advertising. Results indicate that male candidates emphasize toughness in their ads three times as often as females, while the latter stress their compassion twice as often as men.
137. Bush, Alan J. and William C. Moncrief, III., "The Effect of Attorneys' Direct Mail Advertising on Credibility: A Study of Attorneys' and Consumers' Perceptions," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 8, (1, 1985), 161-174.
The experiment conducted among attorneys and consumers uses as test stimuli mock-up print ads for a fictitious attorney which vary by the information content. Results suggest that consumers and attorneys possess different selective perception processes. The consumers' evaluations of the ads are found to be more favorable than the attorneys' evaluations. Implications from the findings are discussed.
138. Cobb-Walgren, Cathy J. and Halina Sleszynski, "Responses to Physician Advertising in the Yellow Pages," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 10, (1, 1987), 123-152.
The paper examines the effect of varying levels of amount of information on evaluations of a hypothetical yellow pages ad for a physician's services and the extent to which these evaluations differ between patients from an advertised clinic and patients from a nonadvertised clinic. The study overall finds more information preferred to less. Results also indicate that patients are favorable toward the use of advertising by physicians, while patients of the advertised clinic rate the ads more favorably than did patients of the nonadvertised clinic.
139. Healey, John S., Melvyn E. Fisher, and Grace F. Healey, "Advertising Screamers Versus Hummers," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 26, (December 1986/January 1987), 43-49.
The study explores the relative effects of the FTC's loosened regulatory control on AS (advertising screamer) and AH (advertising hummer) product classes which are determined using LNA data regarding the advertising expenditure on network television. A total of 200 prime-time network- television commercials are content analyzed in terms of the number of informational claims and the nature of verification claims. Results indicate that while the AS group has significantly reduced the number of information claims during 1981-1985, the AH group shows no significant difference. No change is found for either group in the type of verification claims made.
140. Healey, John S. and Harold H. Kassarjian, "Advertising Substantiation and Advertiser Response: A Content Analysis of Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47, (Winter, 1983), 107-117.
This study reports the changes that have occurred since the adaptation of the FTC program requiring advertisers to substantiate ad claims. The content of print ads subject to the claim substantiation which appeared in sixteen consumer magazines before and after the program are compared. Results indicate that the number of attribute claims have somewhat decreased and the types of evidence supporting claims have changed since the adaptation of the program, but that the level of informativeness in the ads has not.
141. Latimar, Margaret K. "Policy Issues and Personal Images in Political Advertising in a State Election," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 61, (4, 1984), 776-84, 852.
The political campaign ads run by 42 candidates for the Alabama state senate in1982 are content analyzed to determine whether they are policy- based or personally-oriented. The sample units are weekly newspapers originating in the senate districts outside the heavily urban areas where the majority of the population tend to use newspapers as a source of information on state government politics. Results show that an overwhelming majority of the ads focus heavily on the personal theme. This study also indicates that political context dictates the successful choice of message information, with the winning challengers focusing more on policy presentation and the winning incumbents personalized information.
142. Latimar, Margaret K., "Political Advertising for Federal and State Elections: Images or Substance?," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 62, (4, 1985), 861-68.
Extending from a previous study by the author, the research examines the contextual (situational) influence in the content (personal vs. policy) of political advertising. The study involves a content analysis of ads in the Alabama newspapers for in-state federal races and for a second gubernatorial race. Results indicate that the ration of the personal to policy content in the ads varies according to political context (whether the ad is for a challenger or an incumbent, a competitive or noncompetitive race, etc.).
143. Lord, John B., Joseph O. Eastlack, Jr., and John L. Stanton, Jr., "Health Claims in Food Advertising: Is There a Bandwagon Effect?," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 27, (April/May, 1987), 9-15.
A content analysis is conducted to determine the frequency with which various health-related and other claims are made in food advertising. The study includes all ads except those for alcoholic and carbonated beverages, juices, baby food, or pet food in a one -year issues of 21 general magazines. The results of the study indicate that the use of health claims is not widespread and that taste and quality claims continue to be the most extensively used in food print advertising. Across the year studied is there found no systematic increase as expected from the attention given to the use of health claims subsequent to the Kellog's All-Bran campaign.
144. Madden, Charles S., Marjorie J. Caballero and Shinya Matsukubo, "Analysis of Information Content in U.S. and Japanese Magazine Advertising," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 15, (3, 1986), 38-45.
Employing Resnik and Stern's classification of information cues, ads in six categories of magazines (general, sports, entertainment, women's, men's, and professional) are content analyzed. Results indicate that Japanese magazine advertisements include more information cues than U.S. ads, although the emphasis on specific content varies between the two countries.
145. Ringold, Debra Jones, "A Preliminary Investigation of the Information Content of Cigarette Advertising: A Longitudinal Analysis," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, (eds.), Melanie Wallendorf and Paul Anderson, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1986, 269-73.
This research examines how the extent and type of health information in cigarette advertising vary over time and by brand in a content analysis. The analysis consists of 211 print ads taken from Time, The New Yorker, The Saturday Evening Post, and Life magazines published between 1926 and 1985. The findings indicate that prior to the FTC's 1955 cigarette advertising guidelines, health claims constitute a considerable portion of the information in the cigarette ads studied, while they seldom appear after 1955.
146. Sarel, Dan, "Trends in Factual Claims in Ads in Magazines, 1958, 1968 and 1978," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 61, (3, 1984), 650-54, 743.
Along with a discussion of issues concerning the definition and measurement of informational advertising content, a random sample of 1079 ads obtained from three general magazines (The New Yorker, Newsweek and Reader's Digest) are content analyzed for being factual (defined as containing objective signification) or nonfactual (subjective signification). The analysis reveals that while many ads contain nonfactual claims, the vast majority also contain factual claims in all three periods (1958, 1968, and 1978) across all three magazines studied . No significant change in trend is found.
147. Soley, Lawrence C. and Leonard N. Reid, "Is the Perception of Informativeness Determined by the Quantity or the Type of Information in Advertising?" Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 6, (1, 1983), 241-251.
One hundred and twenty six full-page color Ad-Chart-scored magazine ads are content analyzed using Resnik and Stern's classification system. The perceived informativeness of ads is measured among the readers of the magazine being studied to form an Ad-Chart informativeness index score for each ad. Regression analysis of the Ad-Chart informativeness index scores (as the criterion variable of the perceived informativeness) and the coded information cues (as the predictor variables of information quantity and type) reveals that the type rather than the quantity of information positively affects the perception of advertising informativeness.
148. Tom, Gail, Stephen Calvert, Rita Goolkatsian and Arlene Zumsteg, "An Analysis of Information Content in Television Advertising: An Update," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 7, (1, 1984), 159-166.
Three hundred and forty-eight randomly selected network television commercials aired in 1981 are analyzed to determine their informational value using Resnik and Stern's fourteen operationally defined evaluative criteria. Comparison of results from the present study and the previous benchmark study by Resnik and Stern in 1977 indicates that the informativeness of television commercials has not changed significantly in five years since the original study.
149. Unger, Lynette S. and Joanne M. Klebba, "Subjective Leisure Elements in Travel Promotion: A Content Analysis," Proceedings of the 1983 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Donald W. Jugenheimer, 1983, 120- 124.
Six dimensions of perceived leisure hypothesized to be present across different activities are identified: intrinsic satisfaction, perceived freedom, involvement, arousal, mastery and spontaneity. Use of the dimensions in travel promotion copy is examined in the content analysis of 102 travel print ads and brochures selected from 1982 issues of Travel Weekly (a trade magazine). Results indicate that four of the six dimensions are present in the majority of the copy pieces and are frequently used.
D. MECHANICAL AND STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
150. Beltramini, Richard F. and Vincent J. Blasko, "An Analysis of Award-Winning Advertising Headlines," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 26, (April/May, 1986), 48-51.
This study attempts to identify common headline characteristics that might contribute to the successful (award-winning) performance of an ad. A content analysis of 81 award-winning print ads is conducted by a panel of judges composed of agency creative people. In the process, six agreed- upon characteristics are derived from the headleines of the ads. Analysis of the headlines based on these categories shows that over half of the headlines utilize "familiar saying' or "contrast."
151. Block, Martin P. and Bruce C. Vanden Bergh, "Can You Sell Subliminal Messages to Consumers?," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 14, (3, 1985), 59-62.
Through a telephone survey this study investigates consumer attitudes toward the use of subliminal messages for self-help purposes. Consumers are found to be concerned about being influenced to do things they do not want to do and skeptical of the efficacy of subliminal techniques for losing weight, stopping smoking, and improving study habits.
152. Burnkrant, Robert E. and Hanumantha R. Unnava, "Effects of Variation in Message Execution on the Learning of Repeated Brand Information," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, (eds.), Melanie Wallendorf and Paul Anderson, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1986, 173-76.
The research examines the impact of using different ad executions vs. the same ad execution over time on brand recall, attention paid, and brand evaluation. A set of hypotheses formulated from the encoding variability and McGuire's information processing perspectives are tested in an experiment involving 74 college students. The study uses as the experimental stimuli actual print ads for an existing brand of scotch which are presented sixth, twelfth, nineteenth of 25 slides containing a number of filler ads. The results provides support for the encoding variability hypothesis as presenting three different executions of an ad result in greater brand recall than presenting the same execution three times. It is also suggested that these effects are not due to differential attention levels paid. Implications of the results are discussed for media schedulings and future research.
153. Bush, Robert P., Alan J. Bush and David Ortinau, "The Effects of Number-Based Copy on Readers' Perceptions of Print Advertising: An Exploratory Study." Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, 1987, R79-R82.
This paper presents results of an experiment conducted with 190 individuals selected via mall intercepts. Prints ads are developed for fictious brands of consumer durable as well as nondurable products. Results suggest that a number-based ad is perceived differently than a similar ad without numbers across products studied, and that individual differences may attribute to the differences observed.
154. Cetola, Hank and Kathleen Prinkey, "Introversion-Extraversion and Loud Commercials," Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 3, (2, 1986), 123-32.
By combining Eysenck's personality theory (describing differential levels of cortical arousal for introverts and extroverts) with Berlyne's theory (proposing arousal levels associated with different hedonic values), advertising appeals presented at a higher stimulus intensity (in volume) than the program in which they are imbedded are hypothesized to have a differential effect on individuals depending on whether they are introverts or extraverts. A sample of undergraduates are exposed to either a radio commercial for a fictitious product played at the same volume as the program or to the one played at higher volume. Results indicate that extraverts respond more favorably toward the ad and the product to higher arousal potentials (louder commercials than the program). Findings also suggest that the introverts respond more positively to lower arousal potentials.
155. Chamblee, Robert and Larry Soley, "Does Layout Affect Industrial Advertising Performance?" Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, 1987, R9-R14.
This study examines the relative effectiveness of various copy layout formats (the Ayer #1, Revus, and others) and their specific elements used in industrial advertisements on the Ad Sell "Established Contact," "Arouse Interest," and "Build Preference" scores. A sample of 124 Ad Sell-scored ads taken from Electrical Construction and Maintenance trade magazine are coded according to the layout and color used. Results of the study indicate that while overall layout format does not significantly affect industrial readers' interest or preference, certain copy components such as number of illustrations contained in the ad affects Ad Sell interest and preference scores.
156. Choe, Jae-Hyun, Gary B. Wilcox and Andrew P. Hardy, "Facial Expressions in Magazine Ads: A Cross-Cultural Comparison," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 63, (1, 1986), 122-26, 166.
A content analysis is undertaken to compare the differences and similarities in facial expression of models between Korean and U.S. magazine ads. The study involves 1760 ads taken from 1981, 1982, and 1983 issues of two general and two women's magazines for each country. Results of the study reveals a significant difference in smiling frequency between the tow countries with models in the U.S. magazines smiling more frequently. Regardless of country of origin, females are found to smile more frequently than male models.
157. Deighton, John, "The Interaction of Advertising and Evidence," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol.11, (December, 1984), 763-70.
An experiment is conducted with 40 women car owners to test a model of persuasion that introduces evidence as a factor assumed to interact with advertising. Each subject is or is not shown ads including the actual print ad for Ford automobiles asserting "Quality is Job 1" (advertising present or absent condition) with or without objective evidence for the claim made, i.e., excerpts from Consumer Reports' "frequency-of-Repair Records" (evidence-present or absent condition). Analysis of subjects' belief ratings for Ford's reliability measured before and after exposure to the ad indicates no significant effect of advertising on belief. Advertising is, however, found to have a significant impact on belief when mediated by exposure to evidence.
158. Deighton, John., "Rhetorical Strategies in Advertising," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, (eds.), Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1984, 432-436.
Rhetorical theory is applied to identify attributes in argument structure and form of an ad which are necessary for successful transformational advertising. A typology of analyzing advertising arguments is proposed that is based on the two dimensions: argument structure and form.
159. Dodge, H. Robert and Sam Fullerton, " Copy Length Across the Product Life Cycle," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 7, (1, 1984), 149-158.
This study tests the hypothesis that copy length of ads will vary according to a product's position in the product life cycle. The length of the selling message is measured for full-page magazine ads for 64 products classified by product life cycle. Ads are selected from Sports Illustrated, Seventeen, Golf Digest, Fortune, Time, House Beautiful, Ladies' Home Journal, and Family Circle. Results indicate that the average length of copy drops significantly as the product life cycle proceeds.
160. Feasely, Florence G. and Elnora W. Stuart, "Magazine Advertising Layout and Design: 1932-1982," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16 (2, 1987), 20-25.
A content analysis is undertaken to examine trends during the five decades from 1932 through 1982 toward the use of graphics in both overall layout type and individual layout components of magazine advertising. The analysis is composed of 513 full or double-page ads drawn via a systematic sampling from Time and Saturday Evening Post. Results suggest that with the decade of 1960s being a breaking point the earlier years are characterized by a move toward simplication using fewer layout components, and the later years by a busier look in advertising layouts. The study, however, indicates a decreased use of more cluttered overall layout types in later years.
161. Ferguson, Jeffrey and John A. Miller, "Good News-Bad News: Negative Information in Advertising: Does Presentation Order Make a Difference?," Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, 1987, R61-66.
Using a 3 x 3 between-subject design, the impact of two-sided meassges (varying in the level of negativity/positivity of the infomation) and the order of presentation (beginning, middle, and end) is examined on the consumer's evaluation of the ad and the product (service). The study consists of 135 adults from various age groups and uses as the test stimuli the "testimonial" type of print ads for a fictitious bank. Results indicate no significant effect of negativity/positivity of the information presented in the ad. However, where negative information is presented, more positive evaluation is found to result when that negative information is presented early in the ad.
162. Gable, Myron, Henry T. Wilkins, Lynn Harris and Richard Feinberg, "An Evaluation of Subliminally Embedded Sexual Stimuli in Graphics," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16, (1, 1987), 26-31.
The effect of embedded sexual stimuli in graphics is examined in an experiment with a sample of college students. An edited version of a print ad for an existing brand is used for each of four product categories - camera, pen, beer, and food. Results show no significant impact of subliminally embedded sexual words and/or symbols in product photographs on consumer preference.
163. Gardner, Meryl Paula, "Advertising Effects on Attributes Recalled and Criteria Used for Brand Evaluations," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 10, (December, 1983), 310-18.
Results from an experiment is reported which examines the effects of attribute prominence in an ad, together with the mediating effects of self- perception of familiarity and processing task, on subsequent recall and brand evaluation. A print mock-up ad for a hypothetical brand of tennis balls is used in the study involving 181 undergraduate students. Results show that making a certain attribute prominent directs an individual's attention to that attribute and away from all other attributes, affecting subsequent recall. The prominent format, along with the perceived product familiarity, is found to impact upon brand evaluation as well, regardless of the individual's processing tasks upon exposure.
164. Harris, Richard Jackson, Ruth E. Sturm, Michael L. Klassen, and John I. Bechtold, "Language in Advertising: A Psycholinguistic Approach," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 9, (February?, 1986), 1-26.
This paper identifies and discusses several advertising topic areas where a psycholinguistic approach has been and can be useful. Along with some issues of information processing as they apply to advertising language, linguistic issues are discussed in the general areas of ads as type of text, the pragmatics of advertising language, and the phonological aspects of advertising. Misleading advertising is also examined from a psycholinguistic perspective.
165. Hausknecht, Douglas R. and Danny L. Moore, "The Effects of Time Compressed Advertising on Brand Attitude Judgments," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (ed.), Richard J. Lutz, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1985, 105-10.
This paper descrives three competing models (preference, source credibility, cognitive elaboration models) of time compression effects on brand attitudes. Previous empirical findings are also reviewed. The three models are tested in a 2 (product class) X 2 (argument strength) X 2 (source credibility) X 3 (time compression or message exposure rate) between subject design. In the experiment, 243 students are exposed to radio commercials created for the study, engaged in a distraction task, measured on recall, attitude toward the ad, and their perceptions of the endorsers. The results, consistent with the propositions of the cognitive elaboration model, indicate that time compression affects advertising effectiveness by interfering with message processing.
166. Homer, Pamela M. and Lynn R. Kahle, "A Social Adaptation Explanation of the Effects of Surrealism on Advertising," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 15, (2,1986), 50-54, 60.
The persuasive impact of surrealistic messages and priming about product relevant information on purchase intention are examined in an experiment with a sample of college students. Mock-ups of magazine ads for a well- known brand of liquor are used as experimental stimuli. Results indicate that recall is facilitated by surrealistic appeal and priming, supporting social adaptation theory. Purchase intention is also found to be significantly greater for those who are primed about the product-related attributes and shown the surrealistic ad.
167. Hunold, Karen Ann, "Verbal Strategies for Product Presentation in Television Commercials," Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 15, (ed.), Michael J. Houston, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1987, 256- 59.
The paper discusses how linguistic indirectness (any utterance not of the "BUY THIS PRODUCT" type) can serve useful verbal strategies for organizing product presentation in television commercials. The distinction between indirectness and deception is made and suggestions for future research are provided.
168. Keown, Charles F. and Leslie Freundschuh, "Alternative Advertising Format