Department of Advertising

Creativity Issues

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
As this web site develops, in the space below we will provide a bibliography of articles and books relevant to this topic. To the extent practical, bibliographic references will be annotated.

Anyone interested in submitting additional bibliographic material for this reference page, or for any of the others at this site, is welcome to send such material via e-mail to jef@mail.utexas.edu. Please type the references in the same format as is used here, and keep the annotations to a few sentences.

Creative People

Joyce Anne Oliver (1991). The writing makes her career exciting. Marketing News, (May 13): 8.

This article is a profile of Sherry Nemmers, creative director and senior vice president for Saatchi & Saatchi, New York. Nemmers elaborates on what part of work she likes best, how she gets ideas and why her work has won almost 50 awards. Nemmers' personal creative process involves sitting down to write her thoughts once, then returning with new gelled ideas as much as two weeks later. She emphasizes the need to develop an idea quickly so as not to pummel it to death. Instinct plays a large role in Nemmers' work. One of her duties is to develop personality and tone for different brands and their ads. She finds that instinct is often proven correct by the research department. Reading between the lines reveals a lot about the atmosphere at Saatchi & Saatchi.

Creative Management

Douglas C. West (1993). Cross-National Creative Personalities, Processes, and Agency Philosophies. Journal of Advertising Research, (September/October): 53-62.

The author's study compares and contrasts creative personalities, processes, and agency philosophies among advertising firms in the U.S., the U.K., and Canada. Because the agencies may differ due to varying cultures, marketing orientations, and industrial development, the author believes that identifying and understanding these differences may aid in the advertisers' selection of an agency. West conducted a survey of 900 creative directors in three countries to measure attitudes toward creative management, personalities, philosophies, strategies, executions, and processes. The results of the study showed the agencies were very similar in most aspects.

Thomas Kiely (1993). The idea makers. (importance of creativity training in business). Technology Review, (January), 96(1): 32.

Fantasy, games, and dream are examples of creative techniques used by employees at a growing number of companies as "a means to enhance quality, performance, and innovation". However, some critics dismiss creativity training as a "flaky management fad". Instead, the major problem companies face is the organizational obstacles that occur when ideas are attempted transformed into products. Innovation--turning an idea into something of value to the business--is the ultimate goal and invention--coming up with a new idea--represents only the first step. Managers often find it difficult to assess the short-term benefits of creativity training . However, creativity researchers point out that creativity training sessions create a positive climate for inventions by make employees more receptive to new ideas. Hence, the organization becomes better equipped to "understand and exploit rapid change." This article presents an interesting outline of different creativity training techniques currently used by the corporate community. Specific examples of the various techniques as well as references made to the "real world" results strongly supports the use of creative techniques in general. However, the focus is on increasing the creative output of "non-creative" employees rather than the nutrition of creative talent.

Patricia G. Campbell (1993). Creativity training requires discipline. Folio: the Magazine for Magazine Management, (June 15), 22 (11): 33.

Management itself is the "single greatest hindrance to the creative process" within organizations. The growth of every business "hinges on innovation." Still, even though "fostering creativity and teamwork is basically easy," managers often find it difficult to make it a priority. This article makes some valid points about "fostering the creative process." However, the idea that "fostering creativity and teamwork is basically easy" does not necessarily hold true for the advertising industry. The suggested solutions may be useful when revitalizing stifled business organization, but might not be universally applicable as they appear to be "too easy" in the management of advertising creatives.

James Kaminsky (1992). Home Alone. Advertising Age, (December 7): 16C.

When a mentor leaves for another job, what effect does this have on the young creatives left behind? That is the question Kaminsky explores by interviewing abandoners and abandonees at several agencies. Many of the abandoned creatives lent credibility to the first argument. They felt devastated when their mentors left. Creatives feel less loyal, even disdainful, toward new creative directors after being abandoned by their mentoring creative director. Many quit or are fired soon after the mentor leaves. The article concludes that changing conditions in the industry are redefining mentoring in the 1990s. Independence and flexibility are key to success, and mentoring should only happen in the first few years of a career.

Tom Monahan (1992). Bill Bernbach is dead. Communication Arts, (September-October), 34 (5): 21-22.

The leaders in the advertising industry preach "a return to traditional values à la Bernbach" and "disassociate themselves form the `creative excess' of today's `boutique' creatives." The world has changed. Advertisements such as "Think Small" might not work today. But when the awards shows are judged by the "old players," advertising might be forced to "perpetuate the same old standards." Perhaps "the new, young talent" should not be judged by the "established rules." After all, technology, environmental consciousness, and MTV have "made us different." The people criticizing the experimenters of today seem to forget that they were the experimenters 30 years ago. They confirm their age by trying "to preach a return to `60s Bernbachian values." The future is missed by holding on to the present or the past. This article is an opinionated attempt to redefine creativity in advertising by promoting the idea that creativity has to be understood from the perspective of the time period in which the advertisement appeared. Indirectly, the article conveys the notion that many of the learnings from Bill Bernbach career may be time specific rather than universal.

Doris Willens (1991). Bill Bernbach: in search of the man behind the legend. Advertising Age, (March 4), 6 (10): 20.

Doyle Dane Bernbach was "the training ground for generations of creative talent." In the early days, one could sense "the joy, the high spirits, the creative excitement" simply by walking through the agency's corridors. However, as time passed, the agency changed and the corridors became filled with a smell of fear and insecurity. The causes of this change is addressed by Doris Willens who was in charge of Doyle Dane Bernbach's public relations between 1966 through 1981. Several insiders, including Bill Bernbach himself, promised to write books about the changes, but none was ever published. What is known comes therefore only in bits and pieces. The fame of Doyle Dane Bernbach "inevitably rest with Bernbach" as "the heart and soul of an advertising agency is its creative work." Still, Ned Doyle and Mac Dane were "essential to the spirit, the philosophy, and the success of the company." Bernbach focused on persuasion rather than advertising. The "creators of the ads needed to touch people's basic, unchanging instincts--their `obsessive drive to survive, to be admired, to succeed, to love, to take care of their own.'" This article provides an interesting view of Bill Bernbach and his personal style as well as clarifying and explaining some of the quotes from the Bill Bernbach's book.
Overall, the article raises more questions about Bernbach than it answers. Still, other people's perception of Bernbach may prove useful when trying to establish how he nurtured creative talent.

Marilyn Pocius (1991). The Wages of Fear. Advertising Age, (July 1): 14C.

In the article, Pocius lays out the many faces of fear that greet her in the tumultuous world of job stability in advertising. She also explains the effects that resulting insecurities have on creative productivity. The author, who wrote this article as a stress reliever, was an ACD at J. Walter Thompson/Chicago. She was fired two weeks after the article was written, but before it was published. Much of the energy that the author would put into creativity goes instead into gossip, keeping up connections in Personnel and simple fretting. "Creative work takes faith and fearlessness--it can't be forced," she writes. All of the looming fears she describes do not provide a nurturing environment for creativity. The author points out that the days of protective mentors are over as well, since those who would be mentors are too busy watching out for their own jobs. Pocius and the Ad Age editor seem to suggest that this article is the cause of Pocius being fired, though that is not clear.

Doris Willens (1991). The Bernbach image; famed copywriter was uneasy with his role. Advertising Age, (April 22), 62 (17): 24.

Bernbach was uneasy with his role as a "famed copywriter" and "publicly, Bernbach gave away as little of himself as possible." Even though he perceived himself as "a little Jewish boy from Bronx," he claimed to "have no sores to squeeze." However, his sensitive areas involved a "permanent break-off by his parents when he married out of his family's faith," the years of the Depression, and "his two brief months in the Army during World War II." His rise at Grey Advertising also caused him distress although Arthur Fatt and Larry Valenstein had recognized his talent and "pushed him forward, proud and supportive of his work." While working at Grey Advertising, Bernbach began to seek approval from Ned Doyle, "almost as from a surrogate father." This article uses a Freudian approach, explaining Bernbach's personality and his "sores to squeeze" on basis of the problems he encountered in his early years. The focus on the "love/hate" aspects of a father/son relationship may explain some of Bernbach's sensibilities. Still, it does not adequately account for Bernbach's incredible ability to nurture creative talent. This article may be useful in providing an interesting background, but apparently tells only one side of the Bernbach story.

Bob Levenson (1987). Bill Bernbach's book. New York: Villard.

The dedication written for Bernbach's never-published book reflects some of his strong opinions: "We must believe in what we sell. We must sell what we believe in. And we must pour a vast energy into these causes." This book is a beautiful honor of Bill Bernbach's memory. However, as any memorial piece, it might be somewhat one-sided in its description of one of the greatest advertising legends. Still, it offers some valuable insights into the life of Bill Bernbach as well as the life inside Doyle Dane Bernbach.

Edward Buxton (1975). Creative People at Work. New York: Executive Communications.

Advertising is an industry full of young people. Still, it is difficult for young people to land their first job in advertising. The way that most youngsters manage to get started is "by doing any kind of assignment they can get their hands on--and try to make it better than before." According to Buxton, "The best training comes from a strong mentor-apprentice relationship" where the mentor provides the "basic, practical fundamentals." In describing creative personnel he states, "The management of creative talent is not easy" as "creative people are nonconformists" who "do not adapt easily to routines, systems, disciplines." Hence, creative "management practices are full of contradictions." This book provides an in-depth analysis of the entire creative arena in advertising with the different areas in "management of creativity" covered extensively. Even though the book does not necessarily provides all the answers, it is likely to be useful when attempting to identify some factors that influence an agency's level of creative output.

John Belknap (1959). Management and Creative Advertising. Toronto: Thorn.

The focus of this book is "the creative end of the business and how to get the best creative work out of people involved on your account." This book is definitely a product of its time. The constant reference to the gender specific term man seems somewhat "odd-ball." The opening statement indicates that author does not differentiate between executions and strategy where strategy is most likely to be determined by the account management rather that the "Creative" Departments. Even though the approach seems dated, the questions that are raised still have importance today.

The Nature of Creativity

Paul E. Torrance (1993). Understanding Creativity: Where to Start? Psychological Inquiry, 4(3): 232-234.

Torrance begins his study of creativity with a process focus, because he is interested in studying the kind of person one must be in order to engage in the process successfully. He ascribes "strong human need as the basis for each of its stages." The real test of a process theory of creativity according to Torrance is in translating it into an instructional model which can be useful in the teaching-learning process. The author offers one such model. He reports that those teachers who have applied this instructional model have reported that teaching has become an exciting experience to them and their students. The author is optimistic about the future of creativity research but feels that more creativity is needed in those studying creativity.

Teresa M. Amabile (1993). What Does a Theory of Creativity Require? Psychological Inquiry , 4 (2): 179-181.

The article is primarily a critique of Eysenck's previous work which links creativity to madness. She feels that work falls short of a comprehensive theory, and seeks to find a " . . . universal, continuos underlying quality. .. which can be 'reconciled with extremely rare achievement . . . .'" The author strongly feels that "product creativity can and should be considered a continuos quality. Indeed, empirical research has demonstrated that expert judges can perceive and reliably rate creativity in products from the lowest levels to high levels of expertise." She asserts that early writing on creativity in the 1960s "focused on the 'creative personality,' largely ignoring the role of skills, experience, task motivation and sociocultural environment," and she emphasizes the importance of developing a "fundamental theory that brings together many varied aspects of the field."

John C. Houtz and Alan D. Frankel (1992). Effects of Incubation and Imagery Training on Creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 5(2): 183-189.

The authors investigate what relationship incubation periods, imagery training and the combination of the two have on creativity. Their research finds that incubation periods result in higher levels of creativity. Imagery training also has a relationship with creativity, but surprisingly, it is an inverse relationship. The aspect of incubation theory most interesting to the authors is the "constructivist" approach, which portends that incubation is a deliberate, conscious process that can be manipulated to improve creative productivity.

Christine Downing (1991). Prologue. Mirrors of the Self: Archetypal Images That Shape Your Life. New York: St. Martin's Press.

"Archetypal images" are images the collective unconscious uses to manifests itself. Downing emphasizes the importance of our images in making us who we are. She feels it important to attend to archetypes, because they bring us to appreciate and nurture the natural spontaneous human capacity to respond to the world, not only conceptually but also symbolically. Archetypal images give rise to associations and lead us to other images, and we therefore experience them as having resonance, complexity and depth. Downing claims such images "help free us from identifying ourselves with our literal failures and successes or from seeing our lives as banal or trivial. The aim in attending to these images is to awaken us to a sense of our yet unrealized latent possibilities, to save us from our sense of isolation and meaninglessness. It is to open our lives to renewal and reshaping."

B. Srivastava (1991). Creativity and linguistic proficiency. Psycho-Lingua, 21(2): 105-109.

This study focused on determining the effect of linguistic proficiency on creative abilities. Creativity was defined in terms of the measurement device, B. K. Passi's Test of Creativity. Subjects were high school students in India. Their linguistic ability was assessed by their speaking, reading, and writing aptitude. Results indicated that trilinguals performed better on a test of creativity than the monolinguals and bilinguals leading the investigator to conclude that the cognitive structure of multilinguals is more developed.
Language acquisition is a cognitive ability which requires generalization and an abstract thinking process. The heightened abstract thinking used by multilinguals in order to achieve linguistic proficiency results in further developed cognitive abilities. The author also argues that because language is involves indefine rules and grammatical structures, the number of products based on such rules are indefinite. This indicates that use of language is a creative ability.

C. R. Hausman (1990). The Origin of Creative Achievement: Spontaneity, Responsibility, and Individuals. Creativity Research Journal, 3 (2): 112-117.

Hausman begins his study with a critique of Dean Simonton's "conjectures" about the relation of political pathology to societal creativity. He feels that Simonton focused too heavily on determining how pathologies affect originality and the presumption that creative achievement is associated with genius. The author believes that the kinds of activities assumed to be creative are varied. Hausman also feels that it is difficult correlate aggregate societal creativity and individual creativity. He says that if a condition is present in an individual, it is difficult to see how a whole society can be conceived as being responsible for this condition. He concludes by asserting that the agent of creativity resides in the individual. He also acknowledges that when individuals contribute creative activity to the society, the society as a whole takes on the character or some of the characteristics of the individual.

Eileen Pickard (1990). Toward a Theory of Creative Potential. Journal of Creative Behavior, 24(1): 35-43.

Both the process and outcome of creativity extend the experience of the individual responsible for the act. The author proposes a theory concerned with creative potential, whereby she considers the cognitive processes in light of the creative potential of the individual at different life stages. She also distinguishes between personal and public creativity. Personal creativity involves an individual's transformation of knowledge. It leads to an extension of experience and realization of new dimensions. Public creativity is essentially the same as personal creativity, but becomes public when the activity extends the experience and knowledge of others. The author in an attempt to explain creativity explores the role of fantasy and imagination. She realizes that freedom of fantasy can lead to imaginative experiences, and through imagination can find ways of representing activities to the self and others. She claims the development of creativity is influenced by a number of factors and the most fundamental being transformational ability.

Celeste Rhodes (1990). Growth from Deficiency Creativity to Being Creative. Creativity Research Journal, 3(4): 287-299.

This study examines the relationship between creativity and psychological health. The emphasis is on creativity as an interactive process, and as a coping mechanism which helps the individual deal with conflict and acts as a force for growth. A critical factor in creativity is motivation, which is defined as " the desire to do something for it's own sake, because it is interesting, satisfying or personally challenging." The author further develops Maslow's concept of self actualization and claims that growth needs self-expression integration and creativity resulting in a self-actualized individual. The author distinguishes between D- creativity and B-creativity. D- creativity is defined "as representation by creative forms and expressions which are essentially motivated by deficiency needs for acceptance, love and respect" . B- creativity is "defined as motivation by higher level growth needs which result in products and experiences that have intrinsic meaning to the individual and bring a high level of transcendent satisfaction and understanding. . . ." She also explores the role introversion as a personality factor in defining the role of conflict in the life of an introverted individual and how they use creative expression as a vehicle for coping or growth.

A. N. Qureshi and N. N. Qureshi (1990). Intelligence as correlate of verbal creativity components. Psycho-Lingua, 20(2): 117-122.

This study focused on the relationship between intelligence and creativity. Creativity was defined as "the capacity of an individual to avoid conventional and routine and produce ideas which are original, novel and uncommon. Every creative thought is goal directed, purposive and motivated for the betterment of mankind. It may involve the forming of new patterns and combinations of information gathered form the past experiences and the transplanting of old relationships to new situations." The researchers hypothesized that intelligence and verbal creativity components are not related. Subjects were ninth and tenth grade adolescent girls. They were administered the Jalota Group Test of General Mental Ability to measure intelligence and the Thinking Creatively by Words (TCW) by Mehdi (1985) to determine verbal creative thinking abilities. Results were presented in terms of intelligence and three components of creativity including fluency, flexibility, and originality. Analysis of the data showed that intelligence is positively significantly related with verbal creativity and each of the three components. The researchers concluded that the hypothesis was rejected as a strong relationship was found between intelligence and creativity. They also suggest that intelligence may be a potential factor of developing creativity.

Smith J.W. Gudmund, Ingegerd Carlsson, and Gunilla Anderson (1989). Creativity and the Subliminal Manipulation of Projected Self-Images. Creativity Research Journal, 2: 1-15.

This study explores earlier studies of self deception, identity and self understanding. The object of study is the relationship between a person's self image and degree of creativity. Creativity in this study is defined within the precept-genetic frame of reference. The precept-genetic model of perception and personality builds on the assumption that percepts are preceded by brief constructive processes of which we are seldom aware. Early phases in the precept-genesis reflect more of the viewer's basic personality. The authors found that eight out of nine highly creative subjects required and appreciated solitude more than others. The authors also supported their prediction that highly creative and uncreative subjects would be more self confident than marginally creative people. However, they emphasize that self-confidence of highly creative subjects has the same quality as uncreative ones based on interview questions.

M. Bhargava and A. N. Qureshi (1989). Aspiration level and verbal creative thinking. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education, 20 (2): 121-127.

This research studied the correlation of verbal creative thinking and aspiration level of male adolescents. The authors hypothesized, "Verbal creative thinking as well as its components -- fluency, flexibility and originality are significantly related with aspiration level". Subjects were administered a test to measure aspiration level which also served as a screening device, and the Thinking Creativity by Words (TCW) by Mehdi (1973) used to determine verbal creative thinking abilities. The results were presented in terms of aspiration level and the three components of verbal creative thinking. The researchers concluded that aspiration level is the potential factor of developing creativity. It is positively related with total verbal creative thinking along with flexibility and originality.

K. Hakuta (1986). Bilingualism and intelligence. In Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism,. U.S.A.: Basic Books.

The focus of this chapter discusses the literature on "good" and "bad" bilingualism in relation to the psychological construct of intelligence. Past research has attempted to develop measures of intelligence and have used the performance of bilinguals on such measures to determine whether bilingualism has a positive or negative effect on the cognitive development of an individual. At first, it had been decided that bilingualism was bad because it often lead to confusion especially among school aged children and their performance in the classroom. However, it is emphasized here that the context in which the bilingual is influenced has considerable significance.

A. G. Richardson (1986). Two factors of creativity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63: 379-384.

This research encompassed two studies each designed to explore the factors involved in creativity. The first study used a test consisting of eight creativity measures. Subjects were eleventh grade Jamaican students. Factor analysis was used to score each of the measures. Two factors of creativity, a verbal factor and a nonverbal factor, were revealed. Similar findings were found in the second study repeated two years later to a comparable sample of subjects. It is suggested that researchers employ both verbal and nonverbal measures to identify creative individuals. Further, the dimensions of fluency and originality should be considered.

B. B. Kachru (1985). The bilingual's creativity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 6: 20-33.

This article is a review of selected publications and dissertations on the topics related to creativity and bilingualism. Bilinguals' creativity is defined as those creative linguistic processes which are the result of competence in two or more languages. Research in this area has essentially undertaken three approaches: linguistic, literary, and pedagogical. Linguistic studies include those which concentrate on the phonetic, phonological, lexical, and syntactic factors. The most current issue under investigation is mixing, the use of linguistic units from one language when speaking a second language. Literary studies focus on literary texts written in a language other than the original language of the author. Finally, pedagogical studies concentrate on specific types of creativity of bilinguals such as second language acquisition, innovations, verbal repertoire, and style shifts. The author comments that traditional bilingual societies cannot be viewed from the perspective of a monolingual society.

Phil Nuernberger (1984). Mastering the Creative Process. The Futurist, (August ): 33-36.

The author's goal is to control creativity as a skill. He feels that while a fortunate few have control over their creativity, most people view creativity as haphazard and uncontrollable. The author starts by describing what the creative process is, noting that most measures and studies provide information about creative outcome or types of people who are creative rather than what constitutes the creative process itself. He stresses the importance of recognizing that each function of the subconscious (memory, emotion, perception, confidence, discrimination, beliefs and analytical reasoning) plays a role in the creative process. He argues for the importance of meditation to develop inner strength through integrated harmony of subconscious functions. This strength, and the confidence it builds, will lead to a greater variety of perspectives and increased creativity. Once the interactions of the subconscious produce a creative response in the form of an image, thought or sensation, conscious skills use the creative response of the subconscious to produce creative behavior.

S. J. Parnes (1984). Learning Creative Behavior. The Futurist, (August): 30-32.

The author sets out to show two methods of generating creative ideas. The end result of pursuing either method is to actively go about planning the future and making it happen. He prefers that people use their minds to "shock the future," rather than suffer "future shock." First the author looks at Creative Problem Solving as an oscillation between divergence and convergence. Alternatives give way to selections, which give way to more alternatives, and so on. The author points out that our minds are capable of storing more data and generating more alternatives than we usually are able to access. Habit-bound, restricted thinking is not as effective in developing a wide range of possibilities as open, flowing thinking. Creative Behavior is defined as a function of knowledge, imagination and evaluation. The author logically points out that all three are necessary. It also follows that the more knowledge, less restrictions to imaginative manipulation, and better the methods of evaluation are, the better the creativity will be. The two approaches to creativity are incubation and stimulation.

A. N. Katz (1983). Relationship of the Ammons' Quick Test of Intelligence to verbal and nonverbal tests of creativity. Psychological Reports, 52: 747-750.

Tests of creativity have been criticized because they correlate too highly with tests of intelligence given these two factors are theoretically distinct constructs. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between Quick Test scores and those derived from tests of creativity. The Ammons' Quick Test is an intelligence test that was designed as a test of receptive verbal comprehension. Subjects were administered three forms of the Quick Test, both the Verbal and Figural Torrance Tests of creativity, the Remote Associates Test of creativity, the Revised Art Scale, and two non creative tests. The results showed a high correlation between verbal IQ and verbal tests of creativity. The Quick Test correlated significantly and low to moderately with all scales of Torrace's Verbal test, the elaboration sub scale of Torrance's Figural test, the Deciphering Language Test, and the Remote Associates Tests. The author concluded that well-known tests of creativity have a considerable component of verbal intelligence.

S. B. Bhattacharya (1982). Interaction of personality and creativity. Psycho-Lingua, 12: 69-70.

To construct and standardize a verbal test of creativity, and determine the interaction of 14 personality factors, ninth and eleventh grade students participated in tests using Cattell's & Beloff's Junior-Senior High School Questionnaire: HSPQ (Hindi version), Jalota's Group Test of General Mental Ability, Mehdi's Verbal Test of Creative Thinking, and Bhattacharya's Verbal Test of Creative Thinking. Results showed (1) no effect of interaction of creativity and the 14 personality factors on achievement, (2) an effect on intelligence by the interaction of some personality factors and creativity, (3) no effect on intelligence by levels of personality factors and creativity, (4) no effect on achievement by 14 personality factors, and (5) significantly positive correlations between "verbal elaboration" and composite creativity, fluency, flexibility, and originality, between "comparability" and creativity, and between "literary quantitative production" and composite creativity.

N. Okoh (1980). Bilingualism and divergent thinking among Nigerian and Welsh school children. The Journal of Social Psychology, 110: 163-170.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between bilingualism and creativity. Creativity was defined in terms of divergent thinking. The investigator hypothesized, "since language and thought are intimately related, the bilingual person, because he has two linguistic vantage windows or corridors to the world of phenomena, would ceteris paribus have an advantage over the monoglot in that aspect of cognitive functioning sometimes labelled "creativity," since he would presumably have a greater repertoire of cognitive cues, signs, meanings, and relationships to draw upon." Subjects were administered tests of verbal and nonverbal creativity, verbal intelligence, and language proficiency. Results showed that bilingual children scored higher in the verbal creativity tests than monoglot children, but no differences between the two groups and the nonverbal creativity test surfaced.

Reza A. Arasteh and Josephine D. Arasheh (1979). Unitary Theory of Creativity and Happiness. Creativity in Human Development, Cambridge.

In this chapter, the authors claim creativity is the only phenomenon that separates man from machines and animals. The process of creativity has best served as a means of developmentally expanding man's awareness in order to attain new harmony. The authors take an existential approach to creativity and feel that, it is not what is produced that matters, but how it is produced. They suggest that the process of actualizing a creative image is difficult, and can only be attained if the individual lives in a proper social condition characterized by parental harmony, communial receptivity and social and personal unity of interest.

Silvano Arieti (1976). The Creative Process. Creativity: The Magic Synthesis, New York: Basic Books.

Arieti describes the creative process as going beyond the usual means of dealing with the environment or with oneself. It brings about a desirable enlargement of human experience. The creative work cannot be considered by itself, it must be considered in reference to man. It establishes an additional bond between the world and human existence. Arieti feels that creative work plays a dual role, it enlarges the universe by adding or uncovering new dimensions, and it enriches and expands man who is able to experience these new dimensions inwardly. The author distinguishes between spontaneity, originality and creativity, and distinguishes between ordinary creativity and great creativity. The author concludes this chapter with the hope that the study of creativity at any level will result in a great impact on mankind. This will be reflected in a better understanding and appreciation of the innovations bestowed upon man.

Leonard N. Reid and Herbert J. Rotfeld (1976). Toward an Associative Model of Advertising Creativity. Journal of Advertising, 5(4): 24-29.

The authors raise and answer three questions in their research: (1) Can the assumed importance of associative process to advertising creativity be supported by empirical methods? (2) Is there a direct relationship between creative ability and associative ability? (3) Is attitude toward the act of creativity related to associative ability? The authors construct a conceptual model of advertising creativity which includes associative ability and attitude as key tools of the copywriter in creative problem solving. They form hypotheses to start a basis of support for the model. Their study involves a survey of students enrolled in a creative strategy course. The results indicate a positive and significant relationship between associative ability, attitude and creative ability. The article provides excellent background on theories and definitions of creativity. The study is conclusive in showing relationships, though not causal ones. The actual strength of the relationships between attitude, associative abilities and creative abilities, as shown empirically, is open to the reader's interpretation.

Silvano Arieti (1976). The Creative Person. Creativity: The Magic Synthesis. New York: Basic Books.

The author recognizes two major approaches in the study of the creative personality. One is holistic, which is the study of the personality of the creative person in its totality. The second approach is the study of the specific ingredients of such a personality. Maslow is representative of the first approach. He thought the creative person is a special kind of human being who has to be considered holistically and not atomistically. Arieti feels this approach does not lend itself to educational pursuits of the individual and does not offer general directions. He looks at the personality of scientists. He considers famous creative painters an writers as well as dramatists and philosophers in an attempt to find a trend or common theme. This goal is not accomplished. Arieti concludes claiming that characteristics that foster creativity are found in all people.

B. Nisha, R. P. Singh, and K. Gupta (1976). A study of the relationship of verbal creative thinking abilities and creative personality. Psycho-Lingua, 6: 15-18.

Based on the assumption that verbal fluency, verbal originality, figural originality and figural elaboration are significantly related to the creative personality, the purpose of this effort was to study the relationship between verbal creative thinking abilities and the creative personality. Undergraduates subjects completed a creativity test consisting of five verbal activities: creative production, fluency, original power, flexibility, and ingenious solution of problems. In addition, subjects completed a creative personality test which consisted of a 50-item forced choice creative personality inventory. Results revealed that the verbal creative thinking abilities fluency, original power and ingenious solution of problems are related to creative personality. The relationship between creative abilities and creative personality is higher among males than among females. The authors point out that there are several different aspects of creative thinking that should be measured separately.

P. E. Torrance (1976). Guiding Creative Talent. Huntington, New York: Robert E. Drieger Publishing Company.

This book draws on research concerning creative thinking and presents observations and suggestions on guiding highly creative individuals. The author relays some of the characteristics of the creative personality and discusses ways to measure and supplement measures of intellectual talent. The main focus is the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking now known as the Torrence Tests of Creative Thinking. Evidence of validity and descriptions are included. The second part of the book discusses problems in identifying the creative personality and suggests ways in which creativity can be developed. Torrance also directs comments to educators and counselors in regard to guiding creative talent. In regard to verbal ability, it is suggested that highly creative individuals may have lower verbal abilities which is most acute at the fourth grade level.

Rollo May (1975). The Nature of Creativity. The Courage to Create, New York: Harold H. Anderson: 36-54.

The author defines creativity as the "process of bring something new into being." Creativity, according to the author must be seen in the work of the scientist, the thinker as well as the aesthetician. The creative process must be explored as representing the highest degree of emotional health and as the expression of normal people in the act of actualizing themselves. May describes "encounter" as the first element in a creative act, and "intensity of the encounter" as the second. He feels that an encounter is always the meeting of two poles. The subjective pole is the conscious person in the creative act itself. The objective pole is the individual's "world."

B. Kaltsounis (1975). Psycholinguistic abilities and their influence on creative expression. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 40: 937-938.

The purpose of this research was to explore the relationship between the psycho linguistic and creative abilities of third grade children. Subjects completed the Illinois Test of Psycho linguistic Abilities and the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, Verbal and Nonverbal, Form A. "Visual Sequential Memory correlated significantly with figural fluency, flexibility and elaboration. Grammatical Closure correlated significantly with figural flexibility and elaboration. Manual Expression correlated significantly with figural flexibility, elaboration and all measures of Torrance's Test of Thinking Creatively With Words, Form A. Auditory Closure correlated significantly with figural flexibility and elaboration. Finally, Sound Blending correlated significantly with all nonverbal measures of the Torrance Tests of Creative thinking, Figural, Form A."

Abraham H. Maslow (1971). The Creative Attitude. The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, New York: Arkana.

Maslow feels that the concept of creativeness and the concept of the healthy, self actualizing, fully human person seem to be very closely related and may even be the same thing. He also suggests that education through art may be important for turning out better people. He asserts that the creative person in the inspirational phase, loses his past and his future and is totally absorbed in the moment. This ability to become lost in the present is a prerequisite for creativeness of any kind. When the individual becomes less conscious of everything, lessens ties to other people, obligations, duties, fears, hope, etc. the individual becomes much more himself. Such a state fosters creativity, because fears and weaknesses which usually thwart creativity are lessened. The individual then becomes more courageous to explore his creativity.

Abraham H. Maslow (1971). The Need for Creative People. The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, New York: Arkana.

Interest in creativity has gone beyond psychologists and psychiatrists and into the military and political arenas. Creativity has resulted in accumulation of new scientific facts, new inventions and new psychological happenings resulting in a greater interest in creativeness among thoughtful people. The author calls for new teaching concepts which will teach all people not to be afraid of change, but to accept it and be comfortable with it. This will lead in an increased emphasis on psychological health and strength. This new kind of human being is needed to confront the new kind of world we live in. This call for more interest in the creative process, the creative attitude, the creative person rather than the creative product alone.

Abraham H. Maslow (1971). A Holistic Approach to Creativity. The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New York: Arkana.

Maslow is dissatisfied with research in the field of creativity, which he feels tends to be too atomistic and too ad hoc. He notes that there are almost an infinite number of determinants of creativity. Anything that would move the individual to greater psychological health or fuller humanness would challenge the whole person. This more fully human, healthier person would then spark off many ways of experiencing, perceiving, communicating, teaching which would all be more "creative". The author favors approaching creativity as an aspect of any behavior, regardless of whether it is perceptual, attitudinal or emotional.

E. P. Torrance (1969). Evaluating creative behavior. Creativity. San Rafael, California: Dimensions Publishing Company.

This chapter presents a brief description of some of the test tasks, their administration, and scoring for measuring creativity. Each task was developed to involve different kinds of thinking and to "have features that make use of what we know about the nature of the creative thinking processes, the qualities of creative products, and creative personalities." For the Ask-and-Guess Test subjects are required to write down all of the questions they can think of in response to a picture or to write down all the guesses they can think of as a result of something taking place in a picture. The Product Improvement Task asks subject to think of ways to improve an existing product. Other tasks ask subjects to think of unusual uses for an object or to think of things that might occur as a result of a specific situation. Figures tests require participants to construct objects or pictures from figures shown to them. The same test tasks are usually administered at all levels of education.

N. Chomsky (1965). Methodological preliminaries. In Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press.

This chapter discusses a variety of topics in syntactic theory and linguistic theory, but is primarily concerned with the syntactic component of a generative grammar. Generative grammar is defined as grammar of a language that "does not rely on the intelligence of understanding the reader but rather provides an explicit analysis of [one's] contribution. In addition, theories of linguistic competence, performance, organization, justification, evaluation, and several other relevant topics are carried out in detail. The author discusses empirical support for descriptive and explanatory theories and recognizes both shortcomings and direction for future research.

S. A. Mednick (1962). The associative basis of the creative process. Psychological Review, 69(3): 220-232.

The purpose of this article was to present an associative interpretation of the process of creative thinking that underlies all creative thought. The creative thinking process is defined as the "forming of associative elements into new combinations which either meet specified requirements or are in some way useful." The author outlines three ways of achieving a creative solution: serendipity, similarity, and mediation. Individual differences give way to the probability of achieving creative solutions. Illustrative predictions include: a need for associative elements, where without the requisite elements in an individual's repertoire a creative combination is not possible; an associative hierarchy, where stereotyped responses will have the highest response rate and less conventional responses will be lower in the hierarchy; number of associations, where the greater the number of associations that a person has to the requisite elements of a problem, the greater the likelihood of producing a creative solution; cognitive or personality styles, where individuals differences in verbalization and visualization abilities affect the types of problems most easily solved; and selection of the creative combination, where a person addresses how or why the creative combination is selected. The author applied the associative definition of the creative process to construct a measurement device. Some preliminary research with this measure was discussed.

Carl R. Rogers (1961). Toward a Theory of Creativity. On Becoming a Person, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Rogers feels it is important to develop a theory of creativity which will serve as a stimulus and guide future research. The author defines the creative process "as that which is emergence in action of a novel relational product growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and the material, events, people, or circumstances of his life in the other." The mainspring for creativity according to Roger's is "man's tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities." This tendency is sometimes deeply buried or hidden behind elaborate facades which deny its existence, awaiting the conditions necessary for it to be released and expressed. The author outlines two conditions that must be present for creativity to occur: (1) Psychological safety, and (2) Psychological freedom.

� 1995, 1996, 1997 Jef I. Richards
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