Department of Advertising

Ethnicity Issues

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

As this web site develops, in the space below we will provide a bibliography of articles and books relevant to this topic. To the extent practical, bibliographic references will be annotated.

Anyone interested in submitting additional bibliographic material for this reference page, or for any of the others at this site, is welcome to send such material via e-mail to jef@mail.utexas.edu. Please type the references in the same format as is used here, and keep the annotations to a few sentences.

Minority Portrayals

  1. George M. Zinkhan, Keith K. Cox, and Jae W. Hong (1986). Changes in Stereotypes: Blacks And Whites in Magazine Advertisements. Journalism Quarterly, 63 (3): 568-72.

    A content analysis is undertaken to examine if any change has occurred in portraying black models in magazine ads since the previous studies covering the 1949-50 and 1967-68 periods on the same subject area. The analysis consists of 273 ads with black models present and a group of ads showing white models drawn from the issues of several general magazines published during the 1983-84 period. Results indicate a significant increase from the previous two periods to the 1983-84 period in the percentage of ads using black models as well as the percentage of blacks portrayed as skilled workers. The study also suggests that differences, while tending to decrease, exist in the ways the blacks and whites are portrayed in the magazine ads.

  2. Ronald Humphrey and Howard Schuman (1984). The Portrayal of Blacks in Magazine Advertisements: 1950-1982. Public Opinion Quarterly, 48 (3): 551- 63.
    The frequency and social characteristics of blacks as portrayed in ads taken from issues of Time, Newsweek and Ladies Home Journal in 1950 and1979 thru 1982 are compared those of whites. Results of the content analysis indicate advertisers now display blacks at work in equal status with whites. In other ways, however, ads show blacks as dependent on whites: White authorities are disproportionately shown aiding poor blacks or supervising black children. Findings are interpreted as reflecting whites' attitudes toward blacks.

  3. Lawrence Soley (1983). The Effect of Black Models on Magazine Ad Readership, Journalism Quarterly, 60 (4): 686-90.

    A sample of 93 Starch-scored ads (23 ads containing black male model, 29 showing white male models, and 41 presenting the product alone) are analyzed to examine the effect of using black models vis-a-vis white or no models. Results indicate that ads with black models do not differ from those using white or no models in Starch readership scores.

  4. Helena Czepiec and J. Steven Kelly (1983). Analyzing Hispanic Roles in Advertising: A Portrait of an Emerging Subculture. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 6 (1): 219-240.

    The article examines how Hispanics are portrayed in advertising through a content analysis contrasting two major components--characteristics of the models and values expressed in the ads--between selected Hispanic magazines and general Anglo magazines directed at or having a high readership among Hispanics. Results indicate that the portrayal of Hispanics differs in many ways between Hispanic magazines and Anglo counterparts.

Minorities in Agencies

  1. Clay Carr (1994). How to Use Diversity and Conflict Creatively. The Competitive Power of Constant Creativity, New York: American Management Association.

    The author discusses how the creative organization benefits from diversity. First of all, if the organization draws on the varied perspectives of its members, creativity improves. And goals play two very important roles: (1)hey must be comprehensible by all members, and multiple paths to reaching them must be accepted, and (2) the entire work force must be committed to the goals, and the goals of the organization should be given highest priority. The author states that all members of an organization must possess power for it to be constantly creative. He suggests that arranging work teams which are representative of the whole company is a good way to ensure this. "Above all, do not let cultural or ethnic lines coincide with functional lines." He suggests that with diversity comes conflict. To handle conflict in a creative manner, he recommends 1) managing goals rather than rules, 2) including everyone as an integral part of the organization, and 3) enabling individual members to be heard. Also, a foundation of mutual respect should be laid, and diversity should not dominate a company's time, resulting in a lack of concentration on organizational goals. This is an extremely interesting look at the link between diversity and creativity. All of the author's insights and suggestions can apply to advertising agencies.

  2. Yolanda Gault (1994). Black Agency Provides the Beef for Burger King. Crain's New York Business, (January 24): 15.

    Gault reports that only one agency has retained a long-term business relationship with Miami-based Burger King Corporation. Three others have come and gone since the mid-80s, but Uniworld, America's largest minority-owned agency, has done work for BK for 11 consecutive years in the African-American market. Traditional practice in advertising has been for minority agencies to handle only ethnic segments of the population. Now, an emerging trend begun by companies like Levi Strauss and Pepsi employs the equal use of minority and general market agencies. Gault's article provides a good picture of the changing relationships between companies and minority-owned agencies. The philosophies of Levi Strauss and PepsiCo inspire hope of changes to come.

  3. Harold Levine (1994). Ad Biz Growing Anemic? Inject Some New Blood. Advertising Age, (May 9): 26.

    The author cites recent headlines in advertising trade journals that claim the industry is now devoid of the creativity, leadership, and fun for which it has become known. He then suggests a simple solution to this unfortunate plight: draw from the pool of available women, African-Americans, Hispanics, and Asian-Americans. He feels that this will restore the exciting climate once present in advertising. He balks at some agencies' claims that they cannot locate qualified minority hiring prospects. "If Sam Chisolm, Caroline Jones, and Byron Lewis can hire black and Hispanic professionals, then surely other agencies can find minority talent." He charges that there will be no progress toward diversity without a "commitment to change," and offers suggestions to the industry. This is a wonderful call to action to all American agencies. Levine's suggestions are a fresh departure from the run-of-the-mill remedies touted by other ad professionals.

  4. Blan Holman (1993). Changing the Face(s) of Advertising: AAF and Its Members Seek Solutions to Advertising's Dearth of Diversity. American Advertising, (Fall): 10-13.

    The author refers to minorities in advertising as "invisible people." He uses the following statistics to make that point. Blacks, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, make up 10.1% of the total work force but fill only 5.2% of agency jobs. A recent study conducted by two African-American-owned agencies reported that roughly 60% of black consumers described the majority of the nation's advertisements as "designed only for white people." A supporting study by the New York City Consumer Affairs Committee found that only 3.4% of the people pictured in magazine ads are black, even though blacks comprise 12% of the population. The author argues that black consumers demonstrate above-average response and attention rates to advertising, and they wield a great deal of buying power. He says that the industry's primary goal should be representing the work force in advertising agencies. The article is rich with details about diversity efforts and current statistics. A success story concerning Leo Burnett is especially helpful in understanding what kinds of efforts and time frames are required to achieve results.

  5. Bruce Horovitz (1993). Giving Ads Local Color. Los Angeles Times, (June 22): D1.

    The author reveals an ironic inconsistency in Southern California advertising. Even though Latinos represent 38% of the city of Los Angeles and 28% of the state, very few appear in local general market ads. The author notes that area ad agencies recognize the problem, and some have begun minority scholarships and internship programs to try to attract more Hispanics, believing that having more Latinos in the business will naturally increase the number appearing in ads. The fact that inadequate minority representation happens even in a high Latino-concentrated market sheds light on the depth of the problem country-wide.

  6. Rance Crain (1993). Agencies Need Dose of Culture Shock. Advertising Age, (August 20): 16.

    This editorial comment denounces advertising agencies' failure to hire blacks and other racial minorities. Crain's disapproval is not only based on their apparent lack of social responsibility, he also argues that by overlooking minority talent, agencies are disconnecting themselves from the pulse of our culture. He offers a practical pitch for including more ethnic minorities in advertising agencies. The article is a useful "pro-diversity" opinion, but because of its short length, it offers little substantive support.

  7. Warren Berger (1992). A Different World. Advertising Age, (July 6): 12C-16C.

    The author notes that the Los Angeles riots in May 1992 caused a resurgence in interest in black advertising agencies for the purpose of trying to reach this discomposed segment of the population. The increased interest also resubstantiated the inability of these agencies to move into the mainstream of advertising. According to the author, the majority of black agencies' creative work consists of messages targeted to African-Americans and delivered through traditional black media. He states that no black agency has emerged as an outstanding force in the general advertising world. The author analyzes the question: "Is there a black hot shop on the horizon, or will the very nature of ethic marketing keep them toiling in creative obscurity?" Creative directors at minority agencies offer their thoughts. One mentions low budgets and client resistance to creative work that transcends the framework of general-market campaigns. Another touches on the more significant problem of drawing and keeping superior black creative talent. It seems the most talented often defect to other creative fields. Black advertising must also be very cautious, one manager reasons, not offending black audience members or putting off whites. Further, the author addresses the issue of whether black creative output should be judged by general-market standards or viewed within its own context. evaluated separately. The article provides a snapshot of black advertising agency culture that is helpful to understanding why these agencies are soft voices in the industry. The reasoning given by black advertising professionals is especially insightful.

  8. Jack Elliott (1992). Improved Minority Hiring a Matter of Sticking to the Plan. Advertising Age, (June 29): 18.

    The author examines the question: "Why have we done such a poor job (employing minorities)?" First, he proposes that fewer blacks choose advertising jobs over those in law, medicine, banking, and others. He reasons that blacks do not view advertising as a respectable field, and that respectability is a much-sought-after career quality for blacks. He further suggests that blacks, once they enter the profession, become disenchanted when they do not move up quickly. Later, he offers directions for agencies desiring a more diverse workforce. His guidelines for improving minority hiring seen a bit weak, and sound much like a "quota" system. What level of minority employment is optimal? The reader is left to ponder that question.

  9. Editorial (1992). Make Minority Hiring a Reality. Advertising Age, (June 22): 18.

    This is a follow-up to the article, "The Ad Industry's Dirty Little Secret." The author restates the fact that only 2.1% of all marketing, advertising and public relations managers black and that this places these professions 336th out of the 351 fields that were reported. He estimates that probably only 1% of creatives at the top 25 agencies are black or other racial minorities. The author concludes by saying that agencies need to rededicate themselves to minority hiring to really make an improvement. It is to agencies' advantage to do this, because these individuals will help them do a better job of reaching the fast-growing minority market segments in the U.S.

  10. Eric Perkins William (1992). The Distorted Colors of Bennetton. Print, (July/August): 268-9.

    Bennetton is known in the advertising world for its controversial ads. In past campaigns, the company's ads have addressed such issues as racial equality, civil rights, world peace, birth control, and disease prevention. In this article, the author examines the racial archetypes represented in three of the company's recent ads. In one ad the author argues the image reinforces the centuries-old black and white dichotomy. In another the author believes that viewers are reminded of a time in the Old South when "the mammy" was responsible for her white master's children. He comments that it depicts the desexualization of these women as well. The third ad, he claims, focuses on fear of the black man, hostility towards him, and the attempt to control him. This article serves as a good example of the sensitivity that surrounds the use of blacks in advertising. The author shows that current advertising draws upon current issues in the black community as well as those that are part of the past. Further, the author's comments offer insight into the risks that are taken when a company or agency embraces racial issues.

  11. Joseph M. Winski (1992). The Ad Industry's 'Dirty Little Secret.' Advertising Age, (June 15): 16.

    Despite an industry-wide focus that began over 20 years ago, blacks still don't have a significant presence in the world of advertising. The author examines the issue, looking at individual agency and professional group efforts dedicated to increasing the number of blacks in advertising. He also lists the top 25 advertising firms' responses to the question: "How many blacks work at your shop?" The vast majority "refused to disclose" the information, and a few others said, "We'll get back to you." Of those that answered, figures ranged from 10% black representation at BBDO Worldwide, to 3.2% at Hill, Holliday, Conners, Cosmopulos. The author notes that very few blacks rise to the top in mainstream agencies. He comments that during the flurry of black hiring in the 1960s, agencies weren't concerned about these individuals' career paths, only the statistics they represented. The industry is not being labeled as racist, just indifferent. The author recognizes the need for a rejuvenation of hiring efforts. First, however, minority students should be made more aware of the opportunities in the advertising field.

  12. Caroline Jones (1992). Minorities in Advertising: 'Yes, We Hired One. . .Once.' American Advertising, (Fall): 22.

    The author, president of her own black and female agency, recalls being approached nearly 30 years ago by peers asking: How do we recruit more minorities into our businesses? She feels that the issue has never received the attention necessary to affect change. She labels the initiatives of the 60s and 70s as "fads" that were dropped when they failed to serve as quick fixes. Those agencies that did hire minorities, she observes, did not put them in positions to actually contribute. Instead, they were only allowed to handle less serious matters for the agency. The author believes the answer to the diversity question is simple - hire minorities. Her perspective on hiring and keeping minorities, because she has over 30 years of experience in advertising and is a minority herself, offers great insight. All agencies that plan to survive into the century should read her advice!

  13. Marilyn Kern-Foxworth (1991-92). 'Colorizing Advertising': What Ad Clubs Can Do To Make the Business More Inclusive. American Advertising, (Winter): 26-8.

    Kern-Foxworth speaks from first-hand knowledge of the need for better minority representation in advertising. Her 17-year research of the role of multiracial groups in advertising revealed very little progress, although agencies still talk a good game. The article cites many reasons for agencies and advertising clubs to take the goal of better minority representation seriously. She makes a strong case for diversifying advertising clubs, agencies, and commercials and print ads. The article includes worthy ideas for initiating improvements on a local/community level.

  14. Ann M. Morrison and Mary Ann Von Glinow (1990). Women and Minorities in Management. American Psychologist , (Febuary): 200-208.

    The authors recognize that a "glass ceiling" exists which often prevents women and minorities from reaching high management levels in the U.S. workplace. They impose a challenge on American businesses to include a more diverse group in management positions. They reason that the make-up of management should be changing with the shifting general work force to represent greater numbers women and minorities. Currently, the authors report, "women fill nearly a third or all management positions, but most are stuck with jobs with little authority and relatively low pay." The situation for ethnic minorities is even more bleak. In the mid-80s, studies showed that only one black ranks high in a Fortune 1000 company, and of 1,708 executives surveyed, only four were black, six were Asian, and three were Hispanic. A study by the Center for Creative Leadership does not predict much change in the future. In order to make progress toward a solution, the authors suggest that companies strive to become "multicultural organizations." These are organizations which embrace diversity rather than concentrating on employment numbers and affirmative actions. The authors also recommend research to reveal whether minority and female differences are real or perceived.

© 1995, 1996, 1997 Jef I. Richards
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