Department of Advertising

Information Content of Ads

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

As this web site develops, in the space below we will provide a bibliography of articles and books relevant to this topic. To the extent practical, bibliographic references will be annotated.

Anyone interested in submitting additional bibliographic material for this reference page, or for any of the others at this site, is welcome to send such material via e-mail to jef@mail.utexas.edu. Please type the references in the same format as is used here, and keep the annotations to a few sentences.

Color

  1. Pamela S. Schindler (1986). Color and Contrast in Magazine Advertising. Psychology and Marketing, 3 (2): 69-78.

    This research examines the use of color and contrast in a sample of 565 four-color, full-page ads taken from widely circulated 1982 and 1983 issues of consumer magazines with gender-specific magazines (e.g., Good Housekeeping, Playboy). It is argued that indiscriminant use of color can sacrifice contrast, thereby reducing legibility and readability, and consequently the effectiveness of the ad. Results of the content analysis suggests that many advertisers fail to optimize the legibility and readability of their ads.

Copy Length

  1. H. Robert Dodge and Sam Fullerton (1984). Copy Length Across the Product Life Cycle. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 7 (1): 149-158.

    This study tests the hypothesis that copy length of ads will vary according to a product's position in the product life cycle. The length of the selling message is measured for full-page magazine ads for 64 products classified by product life cycle. Ads are selected from Sports Illustrated, Seventeen, Golf Digest, Fortune, Time, House Beautiful, Ladies' Home Journal, and Family Circle. Results indicate that the average length of copy drops significantly as the product life cycle proceeds.

Disclosures, Warnings & Qualifications

  1. John H. Murphy and Jef I. Richards (1992). An Investigation of the Effects of Disclosure Statements in Rental Car Commercials. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 26 (2): 351-376.
  2. Mary Ann Stutts and Garland G. Hunnicutt (1987). Can Young Children Understand Disclaimers in Television Commercials? Journal of Advertising, 16 (1): 41-46.

    Preschoolers' ability to identify disclaimers in television advertising is investigated in an experiment. The study consists of a sample of children between the ages of three and five. Results suggest that the ability of children to give a correct response is related to age, improving with increasing age, while the tendency to provide correct nonverbal responses is not.

  3. Louis A. Morris, Michael Ruffner, and Ronald Klimberg (1985). Warning Disclosures for Prescription Drugs. Journal of Advertising Research, 25 (October/November): 25-32.

    This article examines consumer evaluations of ads and products using methods of incorporating risk information into TV ads for prescription drugs. By varying the specificity, amount and emphasis of risk information, 60- second commercials for fictitious brands of two different types of drugs are tested in an experiment conducted with 3,374 adults. Findings indicate that while viewed as irritating, ads with greater amounts of risk information lead to increased views of drug potency compared to short-risk ads. The study also suggests that general risks are preferred to specific risks in TV commercials.

  4. Bruce L. Stern and Robert R. Harmon (1984). The Incidence and Characteristics of Disclaimers in Children's Television Advertising. Journal of Advertising, 13 (2): 12-16.

    This study examines the incidence, form, position, language level and variance by product category of disclaimers in TV commercials broadcast during children's programs. Results indicate that disclaimers appear in just over one-third of all children's commercials and that the major users of disclaimers are breakfast foods and toy products. The study also shows that disclaimers are likely to be inserted at the end of the commercial, occur in an audio format and use adult terminology.

Executional Factors, Generally

  1. Betsy D. Gelb, Jae W. Hong, and George M. Zinkhan (1985). Communications Effects of Specific Advertising Elements: An Update. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 8, (2): 75-98.

    This paper provides an update from the 1983 article by Larry Percy. This review of findings from the literature published between 1981 and 1984 focuses on the communication effects of source and message variables such as appeals, message structure and content, psycholinguistics, music and visual imagery, time compression, and subliminal stimuli. A brief interpretation of the review, and future direction of research are presented.

  2. Vincent J. Blasko (1985). A Content Analysis of the Creative Characteristics of Outdoor Advertising: National vs. Regional Differences. Proceedings of the 1985 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Nancy Stephens: R17-R22.

    This study explores the degree of adherence of current outdoor advertising to the five principles for effective outdoor advertising which include short copy, simple message, simple background, product identification and creativity. 252 nonidentical billboards and painted bulletins, which are photographed in a four-mile area of the Maricopa Freeway in Phoenix, Arizona, are content analyzed. The results indicate that while national advertisers adhere to the creative principles, their local/regional counterparts do not. Specific guidelines for improvement are presented.

  3. David W. Stewart and David H. Furse (1985). The Effects of Television Advertising Execution on Recall, Comprehension, and Persuasion. Psychology and Marketing, 2 (3): 135-60.

    This research investigates the relative impact of various message factors on recall and persuasion measures of advertising performance. A content analysis is undertaken with a total of 1059 television commercials is content analyzed according to a set of executional factors such as information content, brand/product identification, etc. Data on recall and persuasion for the commercial are provided by a major copytesting firm, Research Systems Corporation. The research finds a brand differentiating claim to be the most important single executional factor affecting advertising effectiveness. Results also indicate that the relationship between recall and persuasion is stronger for new products than for established ones. Limitations of the study and future research directions are discussed.

  4. Stanley E. Moldovan (1984/1985). Copy Factors Related to Persuasion Scores. Journal of Advertising Research, 24 (December/January): 16-23.

    To determine which copy elements affect persuasion, this study examines the data tested by the SSC&B for hundreds of TV commercials with a variety of formats (e.g., animatics, rough, finished, or 30- and 60-second). The copy-testing system at SSC&B employ general measures of comprehension, involvement, feeling statements about the commercial, and persuasion with each having a set of measurement items (variables). Factor analysis of the data yields underlying dimensions such as credibility, tastefulness, empathy/self-involvement, and stimulation, which contribute to persuasion. Overall, credibility is found to be the most important determinant of persuasion, accounting for 72 percent of the variance in the multiple regression analysis. The importance of each dimension is, however, found to differ across product categories.

  5. David W. Stewart and David H. Furse (1984/1985). Analysis of the Impact of Executional Factors on Advertising Performance. Journal of Advertising Research, 24 (December/January): 23-26.

    The effects of executional factors, formats and devices are examined on related recall, key message comprehension, and persuasion. The database for the study provided by Research Systems Corporation consists of 1059 commercials for a variety of products. Results indicate that while recall and executional devices designed to obtain it are important moderating variables, executional devices that overwhelm the message itself may negatively affect both recall and persuasion.

  6. Larry Percy (1983). A Review of the Effect of Specific Advertising Elements upon Overall Communication Response. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 6 (2): 77-118.

    This paper reviews a body of literature concerning the effects of various source and message variables. Psycholinguistics and visual effects are also discussed in terms of how each variable helps explain responses to advertising. The author points out a number of seeming contradictions in the literature and little research addressing the question of interaction effects of these variables.

  7. Rebecca H. Holman and Sid Hecker (1983). Advertising Impact: Creative Elements Affecting Brand Saliency. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 6 (1): 157-172.

    This article examines the impact of media expenditure and executional elements on brand saliency. Saliency (or top-of-mind awareness) of brands in a wide variety of product categories is measured among a national sample of 156 adults through telephone interviews. The content analysis contrasting advertising for brands with high saliency with that for brands with low saliency reveals five elements considered key in building top-of-mind awareness over time.

Factual vs. Evaluative Content

  1. Ivan L. Preston (1987). Contrasting Types of Advertising Content - A Case of Terminology Gone Wild. Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, Florence G. Feasley (ed.): R25-R30.

    The article examines a number of pairs of terms that have been used to describe advertising claims, such as objective-subjective, factual-evaluative, etc. It is concluded that the numerous pairs of terms can be represented by a total of four types of advertising claims with an enhanced descriptive ability.

Grammar and Linguistics

  1. Larry Percy (1987). The Often Subtle Linguistic Cues in Advertising. Advances in Consumer Research, 15: 269-74.

    It is argued that what appears to be the same thing in content said using different words or grammatical structure can be a basis for inferring quite different feelings or attributes from the message. Semantic properties and grammatical structure of a message as they affect the processing of the message are discussed along with relevant previous research.

  2. Barbara B. Stern (1987). Figurative Language in Services Advertising: The Nature and Uses of Imagery. Advances in Consumer Research, 15: 185- 90.

    The author argues that figurative language can be used effectively in service advertising to tangibilize the impalpable offering, make a complex product clear to the customer, and differentiate one brand from the other. Figures such as simile, metaphor, symbol, allegory, and personification are defined with examples and textual analysis of ads. Propositions regarding effects of figurative language in services advertising are presented and future research directions are suggested.

  3. Karen Ann Hunold (1987). Verbal Strategies for Product Presentation in Television Commercials. Advances in Consumer Research, 15: 256- 59.

    The paper discusses how linguistic indirectness (any utterance not of the "BUY THIS PRODUCT" type) can serve useful verbal strategies for organizing product presentation in television commercials. The distinction between indirectness and deception is made and suggestions for future research are provided.

  4. Richard Jackson Harris, Ruth E. Sturm, Michael L. Klassen, and John I. Bechtold (1986). Language in Advertising: A Psycholinguistic Approach. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 9: 1-26.

    This paper identifies and discusses several advertising topic areas where a psycholinguistic approach has been and can be useful. Along with some issues of information processing as they apply to advertising language, linguistic issues are discussed in the general areas of ads as type of text, the pragmatics of advertising language, and the phonological aspects of advertising. Misleading advertising is also examined from a psycholinguistic perspective.

  5. John Deighton (1984). Rhetorical Strategies in Advertising. Advances in Consumer Research, 12: 432-436.

    Rhetorical theory is applied to identify attributes in argument structure and form of an ad which are necessary for successful transformational advertising. A typology of analyzing advertising arguments is proposed that is based on the two dimensions: argument structure and form.

Headlines

  1. Richard F. Beltramini and Vincent J. Blasko (1986). An Analysis of Award-Winning Advertising Headlines. Journal of Advertising Research, 26 (April/May): 48-51.

    This study attempts to identify common headline characteristics that might contribute to the successful (award-winning) performance of an ad. A content analysis of 81 award-winning print ads is conducted by a panel of judges composed of agency creative people. In the process, six agreed- upon characteristics are derived from the headleines of the ads. Analysis of the headlines based on these categories shows that over half of the headlines utilize "familiar saying' or "contrast."

Informativeness of Ads

  1. Linly Chou, George R. Franke, and Gary B. Wilcox (1987). The Information Content of Comparative Magazine Ads: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journalism Quarterly, 64 (1): 119-24, 250.

    This paper examines trends in the information content of comparative and noncomparative magazine advertisements over the three periods, 1970, 1975, and 1985. 949 full-page ads taken from 12 different magazines published in the periods studied are content analyzed employing the 14 criteria classification developed by Resnik and Stern plus the "energy conservation" category. The results of the study indicate no significant change over the three periods in the overall information content. However, noncomparative ads are found to contain significantly less information cues than comparative ads among which strictly comparative ads contain even more information cues than implied comparative ads.

  2. Charles S. Madden, Marjorie J. Caballero, and Shinya Matsukubo (1986). Analysis of Information Content in U.S. and Japanese Magazine Advertising. Journal of Advertising, 15 (3): 38-45.

    Employing Resnik and Stern's classification of information cues, ads in six categories of magazines (general, sports, entertainment, women's, men's, and professional) are content analyzed. Results indicate that Japanese magazine advertisements include more information cues than U.S. ads, although the emphasis on specific content varies between the two countries.

  3. Dan Sarel (1984). Trends in Factual Claims in Ads in Magazines, 1958, 1968 and 1978. Journalism Quarterly, 61 (3): 650-54, 743.

    Along with a discussion of issues concerning the definition and measurement of informational advertising content, a random sample of 1079 ads obtained from three general magazines (The New Yorker, Newsweek and Reader's Digest) are content analyzed for being factual (defined as containing objective signification) or nonfactual (subjective signification). The analysis reveals that while many ads contain nonfactual claims, the vast majority also contain factual claims in all three periods (1958, 1968, and 1978) across all three magazines studied . No significant change in trend is found.

  4. Gail Tom, Stephen Calvert, Rita Goolkatsian and Arlene Zumsteg (1984). An Analysis of Information Content in Television Advertising: An Update. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 7 (1): 159-166.

    Three hundred and forty-eight randomly selected network television commercials aired in 1981 are analyzed to determine their informational value using Resnik and Stern's fourteen operationally defined evaluative criteria. Comparison of results from the present study and the previous benchmark study by Resnik and Stern in 1977 indicates that the informativeness of television commercials has not changed significantly in five years since the original study.

  5. David A. Aaker (1984). Measuring the Information Content of Television Advertising. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 7 (1): 93-108.

    This article discusses the limits of previous studies to measure informativeness, which have employed content analysis and consumer perceptions. A study using a mail questionnaire is conducted with a sample of experts as well as consumers regarding their judgments of the informativeness of TV commercials for 28 drugs and 28 automobiles. Results of the study indicate that the commercials are perceived by consumers as being informative and consumers' ability to evaluate the informativeness of commercials differs markedly by product. The study also suggests that in comparison to the consumers, the experts have a much lower opinion of the commercial's informativeness.

  6. Robert R. Harmon, Nabil Y. Razzouk, and Bruce L. Stern (1983). The Information Content of Comparative Magazine Advertisements. Journal of Advertising, 12 (4): 10-19.

    The content of comparative advertisements relative to their noncomparative counterparts in four national magazines (Ladies Home Journal, Newsweek, Esquire and Reader's Digest)are analyzed using Resnik and Stern's classification criteria. This study indicates that comparative ads contain more information cues than noncomparative ads.

  7. Gundolf Meyer-Hentschel (1983). Consumer Evaluation of Informative and Non-Informative Ads. Advances in Consumer Research, 11: 597-600.

    The study investigates the effects of the presence of body copy on the perceived credibility of the ad and of the brand. The felt competence of the consumer with the purchase of the product is also examined as a potential moderator of the copy effect. The research involves 164 German male undergraduate students and uses print ads for various products actually run in West Germany. Results indicate the mere presence of body copy in a print ad affects its perceived credibility. It is also suggested that this effect may be moderated by felt competence of the consumer and the perceived credibility of the brand.

  8. Lawrence C. Soley and Leonard N. Reid (1983). Is the Perception of Informativeness Determined by the Quantity or the Type of Information in Advertising? Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 6 (1): 241-251.

    One hundred and twenty six full-page color Ad-Chart-scored magazine ads are content analyzed using Resnik and Stern's classification system. The perceived informativeness of ads is measured among the readers of the magazine being studied to form an Ad-Chart informativeness index score for each ad. Regression analysis of the Ad-Chart informativeness index scores (as the criterion variable of the perceived informativeness) and the coded information cues (as the predictor variables of information quantity and type) reveals that the type rather than the quantity of information positively affects the perception of advertising informativeness.

Layout

  1. Robert Chamblee and Larry Soley (1987). Does Layout Affect Industrial Advertising Performance? Proceedings of the 1987 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Florence G. Feasley, R9-R14.

    This study examines the relative effectiveness of various copy layout formats (the Ayer #1, Revus, and others) and their specific elements used in industrial advertisements on the Ad Sell "Established Contact," "Arouse Interest," and "Build Preference" scores. A sample of 124 Ad Sell-scored ads taken from Electrical Construction and Maintenance trade magazine are coded according to the layout and color used. Results of the study indicate that while overall layout format does not significantly affect industrial readers' interest or preference, certain copy components such as number of illustrations contained in the ad affects Ad Sell interest and preference scores.

  2. Florence G. Feasely and Elnora W. Stuart (1987). Magazine Advertising Layout and Design: 1932-1982. Journal of Advertising, 16 (2): 20-25.

    A content analysis is undertaken to examine trends during the five decades from 1932 through 1982 toward the use of graphics in both overall layout type and individual layout components of magazine advertising. The analysis is composed of 513 full or double-page ads drawn via a systematic sampling from Time and Saturday Evening Post. Results suggest that with the decade of 1960s being a breaking point the earlier years are characterized by a move toward simplication using fewer layout components, and the later years by a busier look in advertising layouts. The study, however, indicates a decreased use of more cluttered overall layout types in later years.

Time Compression

  1. John W. Vann, Robert D. Rogers, and John P. Penrod (1987). The Cognitive Effects of Time-Compressed Advertising. Journal of Advertising, 16 (2): 10-19.

    The effects of time compression on cognitive response are investigated in an experiment using as the uncompressed version a 2 minutes-24 second public service radio ad in favor of the 55 MPH speed limit. Results indicate that compression level (0, 10, 20, or 30 percent reduction in playing time) affects the pattern of thoughts generated after exposure to the ad, with support arguments increasing and source enhancement decreasing as compression increases. Recall, beliefs strength, and behavioral intentions are, however, found unaffected.

  2. John H. Murphy, Gary B. Wilcox and Andrew P. Hardy (1986). Time-Compression: Additional Evidence Regarding Its Effects on Audience Response to Television Commercials. Proceedings of the 1986 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, (ed.), Ernest F. Larkin: R77-R81.

    An experiment is conducted to investigate possible differential impact of time-compression on the perfomance of television commercials employing a comparative format vis-a-vis those employing a noncomparative format. The study uses 30-second commercials for beer brands not available in the experiment locale. Time-compression is professionally done using a 25% compression. Recall of various ad elements are measured among subjects recruited via mall intercepts immediately as well as one week after the exposure. Results suggest no significant effect of time-compression on immediate or delayed recall regardless of commercial format. Possible interaction effects of time-compression with the audience factor are discussed.

  3. Douglas R. Hausknecht and Danny L. Moore (1985). The Effects of Time Compressed Advertising on Brand Attitude Judgments. Advances in Consumer Research, 13: 105-10.

    This paper descrives three competing models (preference, source credibility, cognitive elaboration models) of time compression effects on brand attitudes. Previous empirical findings are also reviewed. The three models are tested in a 2 (product class) X 2 (argument strength) X 2 (source credibility) X 3 (time compression or message exposure rate) between subject design. In the experiment, 243 students are exposed to radio commercials created for the study, engaged in a distraction task, measured on recall, attitude toward the ad, and their perceptions of the endorsers. The results, consistent with the propositions of the cognitive elaboration model, indicate that time compression affects advertising effectiveness by interfering with message processing.

  4. Mary Jane Rawlins Schlinger, Linda F. Alwitt, Kathleen E. McCarthy, and Leila Green (1983). Effects of Time Compression on Attitudes and Information Processing. Journal of Marketing, 47 (Winter): 79-85.

    The persuasive effects of time compression are investigated in an experimental setting. The study consists of a sample of 240 female adults who are intercepted at a shopping mall and exposed to 30-second commercials for two new package goods embedded between television program episodes. Findings indicate that time compression can result in somewhat lower level of unaided recall, inhibit both positive and negative attitudes toward the advertised brand, and depress positive emotional involvement with the ad execution. No impact of time compression is, however, found on consumer buying intentions.

  5. Charles B. Riter, Phillip J. Balducci, and Donald McCollum (1982/1983). Time Compression: New Evidence. Journal of Advertising Research, 22 (December/January): 39-43.

    The author reports the results from an experiment conducted in multiple locations with 1,777 adult consumers. Three commercials for such product categories as insurance, a print-out calculator, and a sensor calculator are time-compressed by 25 percent and tested in a clutter situation. Findings indicate that time compression does not diminish brand awareness or recall or the main idea the ad conveys, but, with some commercial executions, it might result in decreased motivational impact.

© 1995, 1996, 1997 Jef I. Richards
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