The following is a bibliography of advertising copy research, covering copy testing research during the ten year period from 1973 to 1982. Earlier and later bibliographies also appear on this site.
Many, or most, of the citations contained in this bibliography will be excerpted and placed under appropriate topics listed on the University of Texas Advertising Research Resource Center web page, but the bibliography is provided below as a whole, in its original form.
An Annotated Bibliography of Copy Research
1973-1982
Patricia A. Stout John D. Leckenby PERIODICALS REVIEWED FOR THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY
All of the periodical publications listed below were reviewed for this bibliography. Not all of them, however, yielded articles on copy research. For the most part, issues dating from 1973 through 1982 were reviewed. Not all publications date back to 1973, however. Also, only editions since 1979 were reviewed for conference proceedings since many of the papers included in proceedings were later published elsewhere.
ADVERTISING AGEFOREWORD
BROADCASTING
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
CURRENT ISSUES AND RESEARCH IN ADVERTISING
EDITOR AND PUBLISHER
INDUSTRIAL MARKETING
JOURNALISM QUARTERLY
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
JOURNAL OF MARKETING
JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ADVERTISING
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH
PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY
The Advertising Research Foundation has previously compiled two annotated bibliographies of COPY TESTING covering all work up to 1959 and then from 1960-1972 with only the latter being published (An Annotated Bibliography of Copytesting: 1960-1972. New York: Advertising Research Foundation, 1972). In the intervening twelve years there has been a great deal of activity and interest in the copy research field but no annotated bibliography covering that work. This working paper attempts to fill this vacuum.
The categorization of research papers in this bibliography mirrors closely the scheme used in the earlier ARF compilations. The objective is to provide, in one place, a quick and easy reference to the important work in this area which, unfortunately, lacks an introductory text to broadly inform the newcomer to this part of the field of advertising.
This working paper is the result of a great deal of effort on the part of Ms. Patricia Stout, doctoral candidate in the Institute of Communications Research, and Mr. Gregory Brinker, James Webb Young Fellow in the Department of Advertising.
It is planned that this bibliography will be updated every five years so that current developments can be held in contemporary context.
John D. Leckenby
Editor
Working Paper Series
INTRODUCTION
This bibliography reviews ten years of published work on advertising copy research, from 1973 to 1982. We prefer to use the term "copy research" rather than ''copy testing," because we feel it more adequately describes the field under discussion. The most general term proposed to describe the works cited in this bibliography is covered by the acronym ASMAR (Advertising Stimulus Measurement and Assessment Research), used by Leckenby and Plummer.1
Copy research encompasses all phases of research performed to determine what to say in an advertising message and how it should be said. Thus, copy research may be used to determine the form and content of the advertising message, as well as to ascertain some measure of advertising "effectiveness" by testing the potential or actual impact of the message. This includes concept testing, concurrent-development research, and post-development testing. Use of the term "copy testing" implies testing only of the finished product and describes only one element of the advertising message, the words or copy. Thus, we prefer to consider copy research in its broadest sense, and have been liberal
in our interpretation of this term as we have applied it in selecting articles for inclusion in this annotated bibliography.
Our purpose is to update previous bibliographic work on copy research. The Advertising Research Foundation has published two major bibliographies on this topic, one in 1960 (which includes articles and books on copy research through 1960), and one in 1972 (which includes articles and books published from 1960 to 1972). A 1978 bibliography by Lipstein and McGuire includes a thorough review of work on the communication process, but does not concentrate specifically on copy research.2
Over 200 references spanning a broad range of subjects related to copy research are included. Many references are examples of copy research applications. Our review also evidenced a growth in the use of copy research techniques for public policy issue development since 1973. We have categorized the references under seven subject headings for convenience.
The first category, Verbal and Behavioral Report Methods and Measures of Consumer Response, includes studies emphasizing cognitive, affective, and behavioral measures of advertising effectiveness elicited through verbal report or behavior measures.
Psychophysiological Methods and Measures of Consumer Response includes work done where brain waves, voice analysis, pupillary response, or some other psychophysiological measure is used to determine response to advertising.
Issues Relevant to Method Selection includes research on reliability, validity, sensitivity, and multiple criteria issues in copy research.
Message Content and Structure includes research done in a number of areas. Much of this work focuses on the type of message appeal, such as humor, fear, or guilt appeals. Research on message content and structure investigates the multidimensional aspect of broadcast and print message construction, as well as mechanical variable, such as ad size, color, word choice and time compression, that impact upon advertising effectiveness. The effects of type of models used in an advertising message (e.g., race or attractiveness), type of endorser (e.g., celebrity or testimonial), and sex roles portrayed (e.g., traditional or progressive) are also assessed.
Relationship to Frequency and Program Context includes work on advertising wearout, and the effect of repetition and program placement on comprehension and persuasiveness of advertising messages.
The use of copy research techniques in public policy issue development increased during the mid 1970s. Articles included in Use in Public Policy Decision Making assess issues such as comparative advertising, corrective advertising, deceptive or misleading advertising, as well as the effects of advertising to children.
A General category includes work which did not readily warrant inclusion in any of the other categories.
This bibliography is not complete, nor is it intended to be an all-inclusive document. Rather, we have tried to choose research that could be considered both important and representative of the mainstream of the field.
1. Leckenby, J.D., and J.T, Plummer. "Advertising Stimulus Measurement and Assessment Research: A Review of Advertising Testing Methods." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1983, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984. (In press)
2. Lipstein, B.F., and W. McGuire. Evaluating Advertising: A Bibliography of the Communication Process. New York: Advertising Research Foundation, 1978.
VERBAL AND BEHAVIORAL REPORT METHODS AND MEASURES OF CONSUMER RESPONSE
1. BEATTIE, ANN E., "Product Expertise and Advertising Persuasiveness." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P; Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 581-584.
A theoretical overview is presented of the interaction between consumers prior knowledge and advertising copy type, and the resultant influence on attention, interpretation, and response to advertisements and response to the product brand.
2. GINTER, JAMES L., "An Experimental Investigation of Attitude Change and Choice of a New Brand." Journal of Marketing Research 11 (February 1974): 30-40.
Relationships among attitude change toward a new brand, advertising exposure (television commercials embedded in program content), and brand choice are investigated at the individual level in an experimental setting. Attitude change is found both before and after choice of the new brand, although post-choice attitude change is greater.
3. HOLBROOK, MORRIS B., "Beyond Attitude Structure: Toward the Informational Determinants of Attitude." Journal of Marketing Research 15 (November 1978): 545-556.
This experimental study investigates the effects of factualness/evaluativeness of an ad-like message on the components of attitude structure. Results show a "chain of effects" where informational content shapes the receiver's beliefs.
4. KAID, LYNDA LEE, "Measures of Political Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 5 (October 1976): 49-53.
A state senate campaign is used in this longitudinal study of the effect of political advertising on voter recall of advertisements, perceived effectiveness of the ads, ability of the ads to communicate information, and effect of advertising on voting decisions.
5. KAMEN, JOSEPH M., "Triggers of Advertising Effects." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 1 (February 1g81): 59-63.
Using frames from TV commercials to trigger memory in a national mail panel survey, four types of involvement are inferred as having impact on advertising effectiveness.
6. LEHMANN, DONALD R., "Responses to Advertising a New Car." Journal of Advertising Research 17, 4 (August 1977): 23-27.
A longitudinal study of over 1500 consumers is used to test the effectiveness of an introductory campaign on measures of knowledge, attitude, interest, and confidence. Results suggest advertising is most effective in changing knowledge and confidence, somewhat effect in changing attitude, and not effective in changing intention.
7. LEWIS, ROBERT C., "Restaurant Advertising: Appeals and Consumers' Intentions." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 5 (October 1981): 69-74.
Measures of factors underlying restaurant-choice intention indicate consumers process a total-benefit bundle from information obtained from ads, Knowledge of how consumers rate various benefits across types of restaurants can lead to prediction of consumer restaurant choice.
8. LUTZ, RICHARD J., SCOTT B. MACKENZIE, and GEORGE E. BELCH, "Attitude Toward the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: Determinants and Consequences." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 532-539.
The impact of two moderating variables--product class importance and product class knowledge--on the relationship between attitude toward the ad and brand attitude is examined.
9. MOORE, DANNY L. and J. WESLEY HUTCHINSON, "The Effects of Ad Affect on Advertising Effectiveness." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 526-531.
In a laboratory setting, print advertisements are used to examine the relationship between affective reactions (positive/negative/neutral to advertising and advertising effects. Measures taken immediately and one week later indicate a shift in the impact of a specific affective reaction to the ad and consideration of the brand.
10. OLSON, DAVID, MARY JANE SCHLINGER, and CHARLES YOUNG, "How Consumers react to New-Product Ads." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 3 (June/July 1982): 24-30.
Analyzes Viewer Response Profile data gathered between 1975 and 198G to identify differences in ways people react to new- and existing product commercials. Suggests implications for copy development.
11. OLSON, JERRY C., DANIEL R. TOY, and PHILIP A. DOVER, "Do Cognitive Responses Mediate the Effects of Advertising Content on Cognitive Structure?" Journal of Consumer Research 9, 3 (December 1982): 245-262.
In a laboratory experiment, the authors find that cognitive response partially mediates message effects towards belief, attitude, and behavioral intention elements of cognitive structure.
12. PERCY, LARRY and MARTIN R. LAUTMAN, "Linear Effects in Cognitive Response to Advertising." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 8, ed. Kent B. Monroe. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1980, pp. 434-436.
Cognitive responses to two television commercials are related to product beliefs and purchase intent. Results indicate a strong linear relation ship between supportive arguing responses and related cognitive structure measures.
13. PERRY, MICHAEL, DOV IZRAELI, and ARNON PERRY, "Image Change as a Result of Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 1 (February 1976): 45-50.
The effects of an advertising campaign on the attitudes and intentions of Israelis toward traveling to Canada is reported. Pre- and post campaign data are analyzed using Smallest Space Analysis (SSA) technique. Results suggest that advertising creates a "new image of Canada 2S a vacation country."
14. REID, LEONARD N. and LAWRENCE C. SOLEY, "Levels-of-Processing in Memory and the Recall and Recognition of Television Commercials." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1980, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980, pp. 135-145.
The authors partially replicate an experiment on the effect of levels of processing in memory on recall and recognition on television commercials. Results indicate that recall and recognition are the function of the degree of mental elaboration applied to the commercial content.
15. SAEGERT, JOEL and ROBERT K. YOUNG, "Comparison of Effects of Repetition and Levels of Processing in Memory for Advertisements." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 431-434.
Print advertisements are used to investigate memory for advertising. Relative effects of levels of processing (shallow versus deep) and repetition (one versus two) are examined, as well as the interaction effect between the two variables.
16. SMITH, ROBERT E. and ROBERT F. LUSCH, "How Advertising Can Position a Brand." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 1 (February 1976): 37-43.
A before-after quasi-experimental design is used to evaluate the effects of an advertising campaign on the perceived "position" or "image" of a product. Multidimensional scaling is used to show the success of advertising in shifting the perceived position of the test brand relative to competitive brands.
17. SRULL, THOMAS K., "Affect and Memory: The Impact of Affective Reactions in Advertising on the Representation of Product Information in Memory." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 520-525.
A series of research studies are reported which examine the role of subjective mood states on the processing of information presented in advertisements.
18. VIGDERHOUS, GIDEON, "Probit Analysis of Radio Ad Awareness." Journal of Advertising Research 17, 2 (April 1977): 21-26.
Probit analysis (a technique to study the relationship between a stimulus and a response) is used to determine the relationship between average listening time per day and two different criteria of advertising awareness. Findings indicate that the longer people listen to the radio, the greater the proportion of them that become aware of the message.
19. WALTON, HAROLD, "Ad Recognition and Prescribing by Physicians." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 3 (June 1980): 39-48.
Interviews with 100 physicians suggest that exposure to medical advertising appears to be linked with prescribing the advertised product and awareness of the advertising.
20. WINTER, FREDERICK W., "A Laboratory Experiment of Individual Attitude Response to Advertising Exposure." Journal of Marketing Research 10 (May 1973): 130-140.
A significant relationship to attitudinal response is found between past exposure, brand familiarity, and prior attitude in this investigation of the influence of television advertising exposure on individual brand attitude change.
21. WRIGHT, PETER L., "The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising." Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1973): 53-62.
Cognitive responses as mediators of attitudinal acceptance of advertising messages are investigated. Counterargument, source derogation, and support argument are identified as such variables, although message modality and receiver involvement are found to affect their relative weighting in the model.
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS AND MEASURES OF CONSUMER RESPONSE
22. APPEL, VALENTINE, SIDNEY WEINSTEIN, and CURT WEINSTEIN, "Brain Activity and Recall of TV Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 4 (August 1979): 7-15.
Brainwave activity is monitored in this study of television commercials. Results fail to support the belief that television viewing is a right hemisphere activity as well as the proposition that commercials producing higher recall would produce more left brain activity than right brain activity.
23. BELCH, MICHAEL A., BARBRO E. HOLGERSON, GEORGE E. BELCH, and JERRY KOPPMAN, "Psychophysiological and Cognitive Responses to Sex in Advertising." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 424-427.
In this laboratory study to determine reactions to sex in print advertisements, cognitive and physiological measures are used. Findings show that both nudity and suggestiveness elicit physiological reactions and that cognitive and affective responses vary by the sex of the receiver.
24. BRICKMAN, GLEN A., "Uses of Voice-Pitch Analysis." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 2 (April 1980): 69-73.
This article reports on issues of reliability and test validation of a voice-pitch analysis system, VOPAN, in the evaluation of new product concepts, television commercials, and package testing.
25. HECKER, SID, "A Brain-Hemisphere Orientation Toward Concept Testing." Journal of Advertising Research 21. 4 (August 1981): 55-60.
The article discusses concept-testing methodologies based on brain hemisphere orientation and offers criteria for selection of appropriate stimulus and research method.
26. KROEBER-RIEL, WERNER and BEATE BARTON, "Scanning Ads - Effects of Position and Arousal Potential of Ad Elements." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1980, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980, pp. 147-163.
Using eye movement and recognition data as measures of advertising effectiveness, two experiments indicate that different positions and arousal potential of ad elements do have an effect on eye movement and recognition.
27. LANCASTER, GEOFFREY A. and ROBERT A. LOMAS, "Experimental Error in T-Scope Investigation." Journal of Advertising Research 17, 6 (December 1977): 51-56.
Results are reported for tests of reliability and validity of two widely used tachistoscopes.
28. MARTIN, CLAUDE R., JR. and NANCY J, NIGHSWONGER, "Voice Analysis in Advertising Research - Two Additional Concerns." In Proceedings of the 1981 American Academy of Advertising, ed. Keith Hunt, pp. 64-67.
This paper provides a summary of the concept of voice analysis, reviews major methodological and technical issues in regards to implementation, and discusses the diagnostic validity and predictive capacity of the technique .
29. NELSON, RONALD G. and DAVID SCHWARTZ, "Voice-Pitch Analysis." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 5 (October 1979): 55-59.
Research principles for use of voice-pitch analysis are presented. Two validation studies are briefly reported which indicate the ability of Voice Response to correctly predict which commercial will produce the most sales for a new product.
30. NIGHSWONGER, NANCY J. and CLAUDE R. MARTIN, JR., "On Using Voice Analysis in Marketing Research." Journal of Marketing Research 18 (August 1981): 350-355.
The authors review the literature on concept and methodology, and identify the major concerns of the use of voice analysis in advertising and marketing research.
31. STEWART, DAVID W. and DAVID H. FURSE, "Applying Psychophysiological Measures to Marketing and Advertising Research Problems." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1982, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1982, pp. 1-3.
Comprehensive review of applications of psychophysiological measures to evaluating advertising and marketing stimuli. Authors see such measures as a complement to, rather than replacement of, existing techniques.
32. TREISTMAN, JOAN and JOHN P. GREGG, "Visual, Verbal, and Sales Responses to Print Ads." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 4 (August 1979): 41-47.
Eye movement tracking is used in conjunction with verbal report to evaluate advertisements for main ideas communicated and degree of purchase interest. Although eye movement data and purchase interest in combination are more useful than either type of information separately, eye movement data provides diagnostic and evaluative insights in discriminating between alternative advertisements for a brochure.
33. WATSON, PAUL J. and ROBERT J. GATCHEL, "Autonomic Measures of Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 3 (June 1979): 15-26.
This article reviews some psychophysiological response measures that may be of value in assessing advertising effectiveness.
34. WEINSTEIN, SIDNEY, "A Review of Brain Hemisphere Research." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 3 (June/July 1982): 59-63.
Discusses the extent of current knowledge about the brain and its relation to verbal, cognitive, and emotional stimuli through Brain Wave Analysis techniques.
35. WEINSTEIN, SIDNEY, VALENTINE APPEL, and CURT WEINSTEIN, "Brain-Activity Responses to Magazine and Television Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 3 (June 1980): 57-63.
In a laboratory setting, subjects are exposed to magazine and television ads embedded in entertainment content. Results indicate that magazine ads generate more brain-wave activity than television advertising, that more left-brain activity i8 generated by magazine advertising, and that more total brain-wave activity produces more brand recall.
ISSUES RELEVANT TO METHOD SELECTION
36. AAKER, DAVID A., RICHARD P, BAGOZZI, JAMES M, CARMAN, and JAMES M. MACLACHLAN, "On Using Response Latency to Measure Preference." Journal of Marketing Research 17 (May 1980): 237-244 .
Using causal modeling, the role of response latency in the measurement of brand preferences is investigated. Response latency measures are compared with constant sum and paired comparison procedures for convergent and predictive validity.
37. APPEL, VALENTINE and BABETTE JACKSON, "Copy-Testing in a Competitive Environment." Journal of Marketing 39 (January 1975): 84-86.
This article describes research done at Dancer-Fitzgerald-sample and other agencies that led to the development of the Competitive Environment Test, which has two primary attributes: 1) Reliability in distinguishing between alternative advertising executions for the same brand, and 2) Producing results predictive of sales performance.
38. ARNOLD, STEPHEN J. and J. RICHARD BIRD, "The Day-After Recall Test of Advertising Effectiveness A Discussion of the Issues." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1982, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982, pp. 59-68.
Assesses the reliability and validity of day-after recall test debate as presented in the literature.
39. BELTRAMINI, RICHARD F., "Rating Scale Selection in Advertising Research: Does It Matter Which One is Used?" In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1982, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982, pp. 39-58.
Reviews the literature on rating scale differences and identifies issues influencing decisions of which scale to use. Presents comparative method to aid practitioner in rating scale selection.
40. BLOOM, DEREK, ANDREA JAY, and TONY TWYMAN, "The Validity of Advertising Pretests." Journal of Advertising Research 17, 2 (April 1977): 7-16.
Case histories are reported to analyze the problem of testing the validity of pre-exposure assessments of advertisements.
41. CAREFOOT, JOHN L., "Copy Testing with Scanners." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 1 (February/March 1982): 25-27.
This article explains use of the scanner system as a copy-testing methodology and presents some examples of analysis strategies.
42. CLANCY, KEVIN J. and LYMAN E. OSTLUND, "Commercial Effectiveness Measures." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 1 (February 1976): 29-34 .
Data on 106 test-retest pairs of television commercials, with an average interval of three weeks between tests, indicates greater reliability and validity of forced-exposure methods versus on-air recall tests.
43. COE, BARBARA J. and JAMES MACLACHLAN "How Major TV Advertisers Evaluate Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 6 (December 1980): 51-54.
Survey data focusing on pre-testing techniques used for evaluating television commercials is presented from 37 users of television advertising. Findings suggest a consensus that testing at all three stages (pre-production, rough, and final commercials) offers the most substantial benefits for commercial evaluation.
44. COLLINS, SY and SOL JACOBSON, "A Pretest of Intrusiveness of Radio Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 18, I (February 1978): 37-43.
An auto simulator system is used for testing radio commercials to determine whether the method can discriminate (on brand recall) between pairs of different commercials for the same brands, with varying levels of intrusiveness, Results indicate the system provides a "realistic" measure of relative intrusiveness of commercials for the same brand.
45. DUNN, THEODORE F. and RUTH ZIFF, "PREP: A New Copytesting System." Journal of Advertising Research 14, 5 (October 1974): 53-59.
The PREP system (Predictive Recall and Effectiveness Potential) for copy research is reported. On-air recall of television commercials is positively correlated with both related and proven recall scores obtained by PREP.
46. FURSE, DAVID H, and DAVID W. STEWART, "Standards for Advertising Copytesting: A Psychometric Interpretation." Journal of Advertising 11,4 (1982): 30-38.
Standards published by the American Psychological Association for psychometric research practice provide a framework for discussion of standards for conducting and reporting advertising copytesting.
47. GARDNER, MERYL P. and S.P. RAJ, "Responses to Commercials in laboratory Versus Natural Settings: A Conceptual Framework." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice H. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 142-146.
A conceptual framework is presented which investigates factors limiting the generalizability of findings of studies of consumer reactions to commercials done in laboratory versus natural settings.
48. GORMLEY, RICHARD, "How Drop-Outs Affect On-Air Testing." Journal of Advertising Research 14, 5 (October 1974 ): 71-74.
This study uses two tests of on-air commercial testing to evaluate differences between drop-outs and respondents in a control group who did not watch the show. Findings indicate that drop-outs give more favorable ratings of the brand than do the rest of the control group.
49. HANSEN, FLEMMING and NIELS ERIK LUNDSGAARD, "Developing an Instrument to Identify Individual Differences in the Processing of Pictorial and Other Non-Verbal Information." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 8, ed. Kent B, Monroe. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1930, pp. 367-373.
This paper reports experimental evidence in an attempt to develop a test battery which will enable researchers to discover information about left/right brain hemisphere processing without the need for complicated clinical brain lateralization measurement techniques.
50. HASKINS, JACK, "Pretesting Interest in Message." Journal of Advertising Research 15, 5 (October 1975): 31-35.
Short verbal concepts are used as predictors of interest in complete messages for magazine articles, paperback books, newspaper comic strips, and television public service announcements. Results suggest that content is more important than form, and provide a system for pretesting messages.
51. HODOCK, CALVIN L., "Copy Testing and Strategic Positioning." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 1 (February 1980): 33-38.
Advertising for a number of product categories is tested by day-after recall techniques, indicating that, of the target prospect sample, users of the product have higher recall scores than nonusers.
52. HODOCK, CALVIN L., "Predicting On-Air Recall from Theater Tests." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 6 (December 1976): 25-32.
Using multiple correlation analysis, three independent studies are reported which indicate that on-air recall scores can be predicted with reasonable accuracy from theater test data.
53. HORNIK, JACOB, "Experts' Estimates for Advertising Pretesting." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1981, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981, pp. 29-42.
The usefulness and validity of experts' estimates as an aid to advertising decisions are explored and a procedure i8 set forth for deriving subjective distributions for advertising pretesting.
54. LAUTMAN , MARTIN R., LARRY H. PERCY, and GAIL R. KORDISH, "Campaigns from Multidimensional Scaling." Journal of Advertising Research 18, 3 (June 1978): 35-40.
This study reports the results of using a multidimensional scaling methodology to select an advertising theme and then test the persuasive effectiveness of six executions of rough print ads.
55. LECKENBY, JOHN D., "An Empirical Approach to the Multiple Criteria Dilemma in Copytesting Research." Journal of Advertising 7, 1 (Winter 1978): 19-27.
The measurement of persuasion and recall criteria for print advertising using a single sample design is illustrated.
56. MARCH, ROBERT M. and DONALD W. SWINBOURNE, "What is 'Interest' in TV Commercials?" Journal of Advertising Research 14, 4 (August 1974): 17-22.
Evaluation of television commercials is used to assess the relationship between interest in the product message, interest in things irrelevant to the product message (non-product content), and the Wells Reaction Profile, in order to determine if some semantic factors are more relevant to product message interest than non-product content interest.
57. MARTON, KATHERIN and ALBERT C. ROHLOFF, "Use One-lnterview Studies With Care." Journal of Advertising Research 14, 2 (April 1974): 35-38.
A study of the relationship between pre- and post-measures of awareness investigated in a large scale study of multiple exposures to advertising is reported, Caution is urged when using single-interview measurements.
58. MCEWEN, WILLIAM J. and CLARK LEAVITT, "A Way to Describe Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 6 (December 1976): 35-39.
In an attempt to develop an objective system for describing commercials in a way related to commercial effectiveness, 90 key-element items are used to describe 100 television commercials. The key-element system attempts to discern message-content descriptions as well as execution related variables.
59. MEHROTRA, SUNIL, STUART VAN AUKEN, and SUBHASH C. LONIAL, "Adjective Profiles in Television Copy Testing." Journal of Advertising Research 21, (August 1981): 21-25.
Reports relationship of item-scale diagnostics using an adjective checklist to measures of pre/post differences in brand purchase intentions for alternative television ads. Significant product-moment correlations with persuasion occur for eight item-scales.
60. MITCHELL, ANDREW A, and JERRY C. OLSON, "Are Product Attribute Beliefs the Only Mediator of Advertising Effects on Brand Attitude?" Journal of Marketing Research 18 (August 1981): 318-332.
This study uses multiple exposure to print ads in an experimental setting to examine whether beliefs about product attributes are the only mediator of brand attitudes. Another variable, attitude toward the advertisement, is found to also mediate brand attitudes and purchase intentions.
61. MIZERSKI, RICHARD W., JON B. FREIDEN, and ROBERT C. GREEN, JR., "The Effect of the 'Don't Know' Option on TV Ad Claim Recognition Tests." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 283-288.
The influence of a "don't know" option on "true-false" recognition test data is examined using television commercials in an experimental setting. Results suggest the "don't know" alternative has significant impact on copy research results.
62. THE PACT AGENCIES, "PACT: Positioning Advertising Copy Testing." Journal of Advertising 11, 4 (1982): 3-29,
Presents a framework for copy testing methodology and practices endorsed by 21 leading American advertising agencies.
63. PERCY, LARRY, "Some Questions on the Validity of Recall Testing as a Measure of Advertising Effectiveness," In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1978, eds. James Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1978, pp. 121-130.
Percy questions the validity of recall testing as a measure of advertising effectiveness while reviewing mediating factors such as message retention and interference.
64. PLASMAN, STEPHEN K., "Single Sample Commercial Testing." Journal of Advertising Research 13, 6 (December 1973): 39-42.
A model is proposed and tested where the same respondent is exposed to multiple sets of commercials, attempting to alleviate the adjustment necessary for use of different samples in testing alternative commercials. Results of analyses using two 3 x 3 Latin Squares are reported.
65. ROSS, HAROLD L., JR., "Recall Versus Persuasion: An Answer." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 1 (February/March 1982): 13-16.
In a longitudinal validation study Mapes and Ross, Inc. compare actual purchase levels with different levels of response to test commercials for over 2000 respondents, including a control sample. Findings show changes in brand preference (pre-post shifts) do relate to changes in test-brand buying, although proven recall did not significantly discriminate on purchase.
66. SCHLINGER, FRED, "The Measurement of Advertising Communication: Some Considerations." Journal of Advertising 3, 1 (Winter 1974): 12-15.
The author examines the strengths and weaknesses of recall and attitude change as measures of advertising effectiveness, commenting on recent attempts to measure sales results directly, via cable TV and automated supermarket cash registers.
67. SCHLINGER, MARY JANE, "A Profile of Responses to Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 2 (April 1979): 37-46.
The VRP (Viewer Response Profile), a rating instrument which assesses viewers' responses to the brand and the execution, is used to rate over 500 television commercials. Seven recurring response themes (entertainment, confusion, relevant news, empathy, familiarity, brand reinforcement, and alienation) are identified through successive factor analyses.
68. SCHLINGER, MARY JANE, "Respondent Characteristics that Affect Copy-Test Attitude Scales." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 1 (February/March 1982): 29-35.
To investigate potential sources of error in scalar measures of viewer responses to television commercials, this study examines the relation ship between attitudinal reactions to commercials and viewers' product usage, brand preferences, and demographic characteristics, as well as interview situational variables.
69. SCHLINGER, MARY JANE and LEILA GREEN, "Art-Work Storyboards Versus Finished Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 6 (December 1980): 19-23.
This investigation seeks to answer two questions: whether people respond differently to storyboards versus commercials, and if story board data can predict reactions to finished commercials. Findings suggest that while final production increases the perceived clarity of the commercial, it does not increase its persuasiveness. Prediction of commercial performance from storyboard data is uncertain.
70. SHILLER, SHERMAN B., "Accelerated Attrition." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 1 (February 1981):59-63.
Describes a new measurement technique of commercial "holding power" or brand-reinforcement effect on product category users.
71. SILK, ALVIN J., "Test-Retest Correlations and the Reliability of Copy Test Journal of Marketing Research 14 (November 1977):476-4~6.
While examining problems associated with determining reliability, Silk notes that use of the correlation coefficient computed between test-retest as a reliability coefficient leads to two possible interpretations, one indicating low reliability and a second indicating re liability.
72. SINGH, SURENDRA N. and MICHAEL L. ROTHSCHILD, "The Effect of Recall on Recognition; An Empirical Investigation of Consecutive Learning Measures." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 19S2, pp. 271-276.
In a laboratory study using commercials embedded in program content, the impact of a preceding recall test on a following recognition test is assessed. Results indicate that prior recall neither facilitates nor depresses recognition scores for product and claim. However, recognition scores for brand names are significantly lower.
73. TINKHAM, SPENCER F., "Brand Perceptions Versus Ad Perceptions as Advertising Effectiveness Criteria." In Proceedings of the 1982 American Academy of Advertising, ed. Alan Fletcher, pp. 106-111.
Using data from a field test study, Tinkham suggests that beliefs toward. an ad are significantly related to brand evaluation, but only for off-target message treatments. He also suggests that ad beliefs are more sensitive than brand beliefs in terms of message-audience interaction effects.
74. WIND, YORAM and JOSEPH DENNY, "Multivariate Analysis of Variance in Research on the Effectiveness of TV Commercials." Journal of Marketing Research 11 (May 1974):136-142
The authors indicate a need for measuring advertising effectiveness multiple response variables, suggest a multivariate analysis of variance method, and present results of a MANOVA analysis on seven advertising response criteria.
75. YUSPEH, SONIA and ARTHUR J. KOVER, "On-the-Air Test Scores May Not be Telling All." Advertising Age 50 (February 19, 1979): 516-517.
Reporting the results of a program environments study at J. Walter Thompson, the authors suggest that on-air testing is strongly distorted through the use of specific program contexts, and also that using recall as the only criteria for judging commercials is inadequate.
76. ZIELSKE, HUBERT A., "Does Day-After Recall Penalize 'Feeling' Ads?" Journal of Advertising Research 22, 1 (February/March 1982): 19-24 .
This study compares day-after-recall results with proven recognition measures (to indicate true remembrance) for television commercials and magazine advertisements which are designated as either "thinking" or "feeling" ads. Results indicate that day-after recall may understate true remembrance in feeling ads relative to thinking ads for television commercials but not for magazine advertisements.
77. ZINKHAM, GEORGE M., "An Empirical Investigation of Aided Recall Advertising." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1982, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982, pp. 137-160.
Results indicate advertising recall is a multidimensional construct and that different recall measures have different relationships with recall predictors.
78. BARRY, THOMAS E. and RICHARD W. HANSEN, "Telephone Usage and Direct-Mail Copy." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 6 (December 1979):35-39.
Assesses the effect of different types of message appeals (emotional, informative and combination) in a direct mail piece upon increase in monthly long distance telephone bill. Results show informative appeals increase long-distance telephone usage more than emotional appeals.
79. BURNETT, JOHN J. and RICHARD L. OLIVER, "Fear Appeal Effects in the Field: A Segmentation Approach." Journal of Marketing Research 16 (May 1979): 181-190.
A field experiment using a random sample tests the effects of varying fear levels in a brochure. Some attitudinal and behavioral effects occurred for the entire sample; others varied by demographic and psychographic subsegments.
80. BURNETT, JOHN J. and ROBERT E. WILKES, "Fear Appeals to Segments Only," Journal of Advertising Research 20, (October 1980): 21-24.
Effects of four levels of fear appeals on HMO enrollment are investigated using brochures mailed to 1600 people. Data collected include psychographic, attitudinal, and demographic information. Effectiveness of fear appeal level is found to be related to particular consumer segmentation variables.
81. CAPON, NOEL and JOHN V. FARLEY, "The Impact of Message on Direct Mail Responses." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 5 (October 1976): 69-75.
Sales response and personal interviews are used in this field investigation of the impact of different sales appeal messages on purchase of a direct mail offer.
82. GHINGOLD, MORRY and LORNE BOZINOFF, "Construct Validation and Empirical Testing of Guilt Arousing Marketing Communications." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 210-214.
Print advertisements are used to assess the construct validity of "aroused guilt" and to determine the effect of the message on attitudes and behavioral intentions.
83. MADDEN, THOMAS J. and WILLIAM R. DILLON, "Causal Analysis and Latent Class Models: An Application to a Communication Hierarchy of Effects Model." Journal of Marketing Research 19 (November 1982): 472-49O.
Uses latent structure analysis to test causal hypotheses of effectiveness of humorous copy in advertising. Type of humor used, or the lack of it, is related to communication effectiveness.
84. MADDEN, THOMAS J. and MARC G. WEINBERGER, "The Effects of Humor on Attention in Magazine Advertising." Journal of Advertising 11. 3 (1982): 8-14.
Using Starch readership scores for humorous liquor ads, effects of humor on attention level are investigated. Results show humorous ads out perform magazine ad norms, and that effects are moderated by differences in audience composition.
85. MENASCO, MICHAEL and PENNY BARON, "Threats and Promises in Advertising Appeals." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 221- 227.
Using television commercials in a laboratory setting, this study investigates the interaction between kind of consequence (physical or social), its valence (positive or negative), and audience personality characteristics, and their relationship to persuasive impact of the advertising appeal.
86. WHIPPLE, THOMAS W. and ALICE E. COURTNEY, "How Men and Women Judge Humor: Advertising Guidelines for Action and Research." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1981, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor; University of Michigan Press, 1981, pp. 43-56.
Relevant research is reviewed and guidelines proposed for the use of humor in advertising. A need for further basic research on the relationship of humor to advertising effectiveness is cited.
87. WHIPPLE, THOMAS W, and ALICE E. COURTNEY, "Male and Female Differences in Response to Nonsensical Humor in Advertising." In Proceedings of 1980 American Academy of Advertising, ed. James E. Haefner, pp. 71-74.
Upon presentation of three humorous magazine ads to two samples, the authors conclude that incongruous and nonsensical humor is a preferable alternative for advertising targeted to both men and women. Also suggested is that pretesting of ads should determine whether communication goals are achieved, and also if women in the target market are offended by the portrayal of any women in the ad itself.
88. AAKER, DAVID A. and DONALD NORRIS, "Characteristics of TV Commercials Perceived as Informative." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 2 (April/May 1982): 61-70.
Five hundred twenty-four television commercials are analyzed to determine if viewers perceive prime-time television commercials to be informative and how informativeness varies by product class. Results indicate viewers find commercials more informative than might be expected from previous research.
89. AAKER, DAVID A. and DONALD E. BRUZZONE, "Viewer Perceptions of Prime-Time Television Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 5 (October 1981): 15-23.
Analysis of 524 prime-time television commercials evaluated by 500 respondents in a nationwide mail survey indicates a generally positive viewer reaction. Positive attitudes towards commercials seem to be generated through entertainment, warmth, and personal relevance.
90. ANDERSON, ROLPH E. and MARVIN A. JOLSON, "Technical Wording in Advertising: Implications for Market Segmentation." Journal of Marketing 44, 1 (Winter 1981): 57-66.
Reporting the results of an experiment, this article suggests that technical wording levels, in combination with the audience's educational level and product experience, can result in numerous perceptions leading to purchase considerations.
91. BELCH, GEORGE E., "The Effects of Message Modality in One- and Two-Sided Advertising Messages." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 21-26.
Effects of one- and two-sided advertising messages in print and television are examined in an experimental study. A number of dependent measures are used, including cognitive responses, advertiser credibility, and various attitude measures. Findings indicate some negative effects resulting from use of two-sided messages.
92. BITHER, STEWART W. and PETER L. WRIGHT, "The Self-Confidence-Advertising Response Relationship: A Function of Situational Distraction." Journal of Marketing Research 10 (May 1973): 146-152.
This study investigates how potential distractions in television advertising influence the relationship between receiver self-confidence and acceptance of information. Findings show the relationship between receiver self-confidence and attitudinal acceptance of the commercial systematically dependent on the potential distraction level of the commercial.
93. CACCAVALE, JOHN G,, THOMAS C. WANTY III and JULIE A. EDELL, "Subliminal Implants in Advertisements: An Experiment." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 418-423.
Print advertisements are used to investigate the effects of subliminal implants on attitude and purchase intention. Sexual implants within the picture and suggestiveness of the copy are varied in the advertisements. No clear cut significant results are found.
94. CHILDERS, TERRY L. and MlCHAEL J. HOUSTON, "Imagery Paradigms for Consumer Research: Alternative Perspectives from Cognitive Psychology." In Advance in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 59-64.
Theoretical overview of mental imagery as a psychological construct is discussed. Three models of picture-word processing are presented with implications for consumer research.
95. DYER, ROBERT F. and TERENCE A. SHIMP, "Reactions to Legal Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 2 (April 1980): 43-51.
In this study of attitudes toward legal advertising, hypothetical advertisements for legal service are evaluated through a mail survey to both lawyers and consumers. Amount and type of information include in the ads is manipulated. Findings show lawyers rate ads lower than consumers and that ad ratings improve when more information is provided in the advertisement.
96. FLETCHER, ALAN D. and SHERILYN K. ZEIGLER, "Creative Strategy and Magazine Ad Readership." Journal of Advertising Research 18, 1 (February 1978): 29-33.
Using Starch readership scores to define "successful" advertisements, 50 ads are rated on usage of 10 creative strategies. Conclusions indicate that, all else being equal, the greater the number of strategies employed in an ad, the lower the readership scores.
97. GOLDEN, LINDA L. and KEREN A. JOHNSON, "The Impact of Sensory Preference and Thinking Versus Feeling Appeals on Advertising Effectiveness." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceeding of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 203-208.
Print advertisements are used to investigate the effect of type of appeal (thinking versus feeling) and sensory preference (visual or auditory) for four products and five dependent variables of advertising effectiveness. Results suggest that the interaction of sensory preference and product stimuli are the most important influences upon advertising effectiveness.
98. HANSEN, RICHARD W. and THOMAS E. BARRY, "An Experiment in Real-Estate Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 3 (June 1981): 53-56.
Investigates relationship between number of properties included in a classified ad and number of inquires generated by the ad. Findings indicate a positive relationship between these two variables, although ad size and multiple-ad format may confound results.
99. HAMSSENS, DOMINIQUE M. and BARTON A. WEITZ, "The Effectiveness of Industrial Print Advertisements Across Product Categories." Journal of Marketing Research 17 (August 1980): 294-306.
A sample of 1160 industrial ads are examined for relationships between 24 print ad characteristics, and recall, readership, and inquiry generation measures of effectiveness. Recall and readership are strongly related to mechanical and format characteristics of the ad.
100. HENDON, DONALD WAYNE, "How Mechanical Factors Affect Ad Perception." Journal of Advertising Research 13. 4 (August 1973): 39-45.
This paper reports on over 50 years of research, providing guidelines concerning how mechanical factors (color, size, position, etc.) affect ad perception.
101. HOLBROOK, MORRIS B. and DONALD R. LEHMAMN, "Form Versus Content in Predicting Starch Scores." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 4 (August 1980): 53-62.
One hundred fifty-four full-page magazine advertisements, for which Starch scores are available, are rated by six judges on mechanical variables, product class variables, and message-content variables. Message variables are found to perform somewhat better than mechanical or product-class variables in predicting "read most" scores.
102. HOLLANDER, STEPHEN W. and JACOB JACOBY, "Recall of Crazy, Mixed-Up TV Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 13, 3 (June 1973): 39-42.
This study reports that split-commercial presentations (presenting the audio of one commercial with the video of another) produce greater brand recall than intact commercials.
103. HORNIK, JACOB, "Quantitative Analysis of Visual Perception of Printed Advertisements." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 6 (December 1980): 41-48.
Presents an experimental approach to determine readers' preferences among several advertisements. Several visual attributes of the advertisement are evaluated by 145 respondents. Conclusions suggest that ad preference is a multidimensional phenomenon.
104. HOUSTON, MICHAEL J. and MICHAEL L. ROTHSCHILD, "Policy-Related Experiments on Information Provision: A Normative Model and Explication." Journal of Marketing Research 17 (November 1980): 432-449.
The authors present results of an impact evaluation study submitted to the FTC as testimony on policy development to improve the consumer information environment. Important issues in this area and previous research are discussed.
105. HUNT, JAMES M., TERESA J. DOMZAL, and JEROME B. KERNAN, "Causal Attributions and Persuasion: The Case of Disconfirmed Expectancies." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 287-292.
Mock television ads are used to compare subjects' post-message attributions with their pre-message expectations to determine if advertisements that disconfirm pre-message expectancies engender "entity" attributions (i.e., inferring cause of the message to be the product rather than reporting bias).
106. KAID, LYNDA LEE and KEITH R. SANDERS, "Political Television Commercials: An Experimental Study of Type and Length." Communications Research 5, 1 (January 1978): 57-70.
Using the variables of type (image and issue) and length (5 min. and 60 sec.) in political television commercials, the authors designed a study to compare these commercials. Results show that a 60-second issue commercial is slightly more effective than other combinations.
107. KLEBBA, JOANNE M. and LYNETTE S. UNGER, "The Impact of Negative and Positive Information on Source Credibility in a Field Setting." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 11-16.
A field study investigates the impact of positive and negative source information on advertising source credibility and audience perceptions of the product and company. Results indicate a difference in response to positive and negative information between cognitive and affective dimensions of credibility.
108. KLEIN, DAVID M. and KIM WOLFSON, "Paraproxemic Attributions: Utilization of Information Processing Concepts Across Consumer Behavior Events." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 215-220.
Using Hall's notion of the way people perceive situations based upon spacial relationships between themselves and some "other," this study examines paraproxemic attributions to a televised message. Findings suggest an impact upon perceived credibility by relative image size (differences in camera shots).
109. LABARBERA, PRISCILLA and JAMES MACLACHLAN, "Time-Compressed Speech in Radio Advertising." Journal of Marketing 43, 1 (January 1979): 30-36.
This article examines the results of experiments which show that radio advertisers may achieve increased impact and require less time for their messages, through the use of electronic speech compression.
110. MACLACHLAN, JAMES, "Listener Perception of Time-compressed Spokespersons." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 2 (April/May 1982): 47-51.
Radio commercials using testimonials (without music) are used to investigate whether time compression leads to more favorable perceptions of the speaker. Results indicate that time compression slightly enhanced listener perceptions in these commercials.
111. MACLACHLAN, JAMES and MICHAEL H. SIEGEL, "Reducing the Costs of TV Commercials by Use of Time Compression." Journal of Marketing Research 17 (February 1980): 52-57.
In an experimental study using commercials embedded in program content, substantially higher recall scores are found for time compressed commercials compared to the same commercial at normal speed.
112. MACLACHLAN, JAMES and PRISCILLA LABARBERA, "Time-Compressed TV Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 18. 4 (August 1978): 11-15.
Television commercials projected at 25% faster than normal speed are found to elicit more interest and recall than the same commercials at normal speed.
113. MIZERSKI, RICHARD W. and ROBERT B. SETTLE, "The Influence of Social Character on Preference for Social Versus Objective Information in Advertising." Journal of Marketing Research 16 (November 1979): 552-558.
The effect of Reisman's construct of social character on consumers' use and preference of information type is experimentally investigated using mock advertisements on five product types. A model is proposed to explain the impact of audience social character on message response and purchase intent.
114. MOSKOWITZ, HOWARD R. and BARRY JACOBS, "Ratio Scaling of Perception Versus Image: Its Use in Evaluating Advertising Promise Versus Product Delivery." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1980, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980, pp. 59-95.
Using psychophysical measurement methods, a ratio scale (magnitude estimation) is used to evaluate advertisements and products on three types of perceptual attributes. Systematic differences between ratings of print ads and ratings of products are found, dependent upon type of attribute evaluated.
115. PAUL, ROBERT J. and KENNETH J. ROERING, "The Effect of the Consistency of Product Claims on the Credibility of Persuasive Message." Journal of Advertising 5, 2 (Spring 1976): 32-36.
This article reports the results of a study conducted to determine the effect of the consistency of product claims on persuasive message credibility.
116. PERCY, LARRY, "Psycholinguistic Guidelines for Advertising Copy." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 107-111.
This paper reviews previous psycholinguistic research and outlines some of the results relevant to advertising copy.
117. PERCY, LARRY and JOHN R. ROSSITER, "Effects of Picture Size and Color on Brand Attitude Responses in Print Advertising." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 17-20.
Examination of picture size and color versus black and white on response to print advertising shows significant effects of use of picture size and color in attitudes toward the brand.
118. RAY, MICHAEL L. and RAJEEV BATRA, "Operationalizing Involvement as Depth and Quality of Cognitive Response." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 543-548.
Presents a theoretical framework for conceptualizing message response involvement and presents preliminary results of a study using television commercials which emphasizes the multidimensional aspects of consumer response to advertising.
119. RESNIK, ALAN and BRUCE STERN, "An Analysis of Information Content in Television Advertising." Journal of Marketing 41, 1 (January 1977): 50-53.
This article presents a study in which commercials are empirically evaluated for a determination of informational value.
120. RHODES, EDWARD W., NORMAN B. LEFERMAN, ELIZABETH COOK, and DAVID SCHWARTZ, "T-Scope Tests of Yellow Pages Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 2 (April 1979): 49-52.
Length of exposure is regulated through use of a tachistoscope to test three different versions of an advertisement. The study indicates the size of the brand name, use of block letters, and placement near head line influence the speed of attracting attention.
121. RITER, CHARLES B., PHILLIP J. BALDUCCI and DONALD MCCOLLUM, "Time Compression: New Evidence." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 6 (December 1982/January 1983): 41-43.
The effects of time compression in television commercials is examined using three frequently used measures and among larger, more representative samples. Compressed versions appear to have a slight advantage for brand awareness and main idea recall scores, but not for motivation measures.
122. ROSSITER, JOHN R., "Predicting Starch Scores." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 5 (October 1981): 63-68.
Visual and psycholinguistic mechanical variables are used to predict "noted" and "associated" scores as accurately as "message" variables. Findings have primary relevance for low-involvement brand decisions.
123. SCHORIN, GERALD A., "Stylistic Information and Reader Engagement in Advertising Copy." In Proceedings of 1981 American Academy of Advertising, ed. Keith Hunt, pp. 99-103.
Using linguistic and stylistic analysis methodologies, this paper studies one ad to determine how specific stylistic devices used by the copywriter can manipulate the response of one reader, stimulating continued interest throughout the remainder of the body copy.
124. SCHIJEIGER, GUNTER C. and HARALD HRUSCHKA, "Analysis of Advertising Inquiries." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 5 (October 1980): 37-39.
This study of magazine advertising effectiveness uses inquiries as the dependent measure rather than the typical measure of readership. Advertisements for three industrial product classes are examined for a number of mechanical independent variables.
125. SETTLE, ROBERT B. and LINDA L. GOLDEN, "Attribution Theory and Advertiser Credibility." Journal of Marketing Research 11 (May 1974): 181-185.
Print ads are used in an experimental study to test the relationship between consistency of product claims and respondents' expectancy of product value. Results show the believability of some product claims and source credibility may be increased when superiority for some product feature is disclaimed.
126. SHUPTRINE, F. KELLY and DANIEL D, MCVICKER, "Readability Levels of Magazine Ads." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 5 (October 1981): 45-51.
Using the Gunning Fog Index to measure average readability of ads in nine magazines, study findings indicate an overall lack of correlation between educational level of a magazine's audience and the readability of the advertisements.
127. SPARKMAN, RICHARD M., JR,, "The Discounting Principle in the Perception of Advertising." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 277-280.
A consumer mail panel is used to examine the applicability of the discounting principle to advertising. Results suggested the discounting principle may be better suited than other theories for investigating consumers' perceptions of advertisements.
128. SPARKMAN, RICHARD M., JR. and WILLIAM B. LOCANDER, "Attribution Theory and Advertising Effectiveness." Journal of Consumer Research 7, 3 (December 1980): 219-224.
This study uses a factorial experiment to determine the effects of advertising context on the perception of an advertisement. Findings suggest that attributional processes are initiated by the context in which an ad appears.
129. STEPHENS, NANCY, "The Effectiveness of Time-Compressed Television Advertisements with Older Adults." Journal of Advertising 11, 4 (1982): 48-55.
Effects of time-compressed television advertisements on recall in young, middle-aged, and elderly adults are investigated. Young adults are found to recall most and elderly adults recall least in both time compressed and normal television advertisements.
130. SULLIVAN, GARY L. and P. J. O'CONNOR, "Search for a Relationship Between Viewer Responses to the Creative Aspects of Televised Messages and Behavioral Intention." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 32-25.
An examination of subjects' responses to creative stimulus items for television messages, supporting previous findings, indicates that creative response measures are of limited value in copy research when behavior change is the objective.
131. SZYBILLO, GEORGE J. and RICHARD HESLIN, "Resistance to Persuasion: Inoculation Theory in a Marketing Context." Journal of Marketing Research 10 (November 1973): 396-403.
Using controversial claims in print advertisements, this study generally confirms predictions from inoculation theory. Experimental factors include type of defense, time interval between defense and attack, and credibility of attacker.
132. VALIENTE, RAFAEL, "Mechanical Correlates of Ad Recognition." Journal of Advertising Research 13, 3 (June 1973): 13-18.
Starch readership data for two magazines are utilized to examine mechanical and content characteristics impacting upon readers' attention and interest of magazine advertisements. Factor analyses show that color and ad size/illustration account for most of the variation in noted readers scores.
133. ZINKHAM, GEORGE M. and CLAUDE R. MARTIN, JR., "Message Characteristics and Audience Characteristics: Predictors of Advertising Response." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 27-31.
A cognitive complexity test and the close procedure are examined as two potential predictors of print ad response . A positive association is found between both predictors and advertising response.
MODELS, ROLES, AND ENDORSERS IN ADVERTISING
134. ALEXANDER, M. WAYNE and BEN JUDD, JR., "Do Nudes in Ads Enhance Brand Recall?" Journal of Adverting Research 18, 1 (February 1978): 47-50.
Replication of a prior study is done to determine the effects on brand recall of five levels of female nudity in print advertisements. Results indicate greater brand recall for advertisements containing non-sexual illustrations, although increases in degree of explicitness of nudity did not significantly decrease brand recall.
135. BAKER, MICHAEL J. and GILBERT A. CHURCHILL, JR., "The Impact of Physically Attractive Models on Advertising Evaluation." Journal of Marketing Research 14 (November 1977): 538-555
This experimental study assesses the impact of attractive male and female models on subjects' evaluation of print ads using a total score for affective, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions of attitude. Subjects' sex and type of product advertised are also considered.
136. BUSH, RONALD F., JOSEPH F. HAIR, JR, and PAUL J. SOLOMON, "Consumers' Level of Prejudice and Response to Black Models in Advertisements." Journal of Marketing Research 16 (August 1979): 341-345.
White consumers' evaluation of ads are measured where models' race is manipulated, Generally, consumers' level of prejudice does not appear to affect response to ads in any of the model manipulation categories.
137. CHOUDHURY, PRAVAT K. and LAWRENCE S. SCHMID, "Black Models in Advertising to Blacks." Journal of Advertising Research 14, 3 (June 1974): 19-22.
Effectiveness of print advertisements picturing black and white models is assessed. Findings indicate that blacks recall advertisements with white models less well than advertisements depicting black models.
138. DUKER, JACOB M. and LEWIS R. TUCKER, JR., "'Women's Lib-ers' Versus Independent Women: A Study of Preferences for Women's Roles in Advertising." Journal of Marketing Research 14 (November 1977): 469-475.
Print advertisements from national magazines are examined using a college student sample. Results indicate that "independent," profeminist women do not react significantly differently to the portrayal of women in advertisements from "neutral" women or "independent" women who do not express profeminist attitudes.
139. FREIDEN, JON B., "What a Celebrity Endorser Does for an Advertised Product." In Proceedings of 1981 American Academy of Advertising, ed. Keith Hunt, pp. 13-16.
Using a 2 x 2 factorial design, Freiden finds celebrity endorsement of a product to be fairly ineffective in raising consumer attitudes toward an advertised product, even when the advertiser is an unfamiliar one.
140. FRIEDMAM, HERSHEY H., SALVATORE TERMINI, and ROBERT WASHINGTON, "The Effectiveness of Advertisements Using Four Types of Endorsers." Journal of Advertising 5, 3 (Summer 1976): 22-24.
Using five groups of students, a product is rated on expected selling price, anticipated taste, and intent-to-buy, using various endorsers: celebrity, student, professional expert, and company president.
141. FRIEDMAN, HERSHEY H. and LINDA FRIEDMAN, "Endorser Effectiveness by Product Type." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 5 (October 1979): 63-71.
This study of print advertisements investigates whether or not the effectiveness of the type of endorser (celebrity, professional expert, or typical consumer) is dependent upon type of product being endorsed. Findings indicate a significant product-by-endorser interaction and that different types of endorsers are more effective depending on the advertising objective.
142. JOSEPH, W. BENOY, "The Credibility of Physically Attractive Communicators: A Review." Journal of Advertising 11, 3 (1982): 15-24 .
Critically reviews experimental evidence from advertising, psychology, and other disciplines on effects of physically attractive communicator on various dependent measures.
143. KAMEN, JOSEPH M., ABDUL C. AZHARI, and JUDITH R. KRAGH, "What a Spokesman Does for a Sponsor." Journal of Advertising Research 15, 2 (April 1975): 17-24.
Results of the impact of a celebrity spokesman on believability, general attitudes, brand shifts, awareness, satisfaction, and company image are reported. Use of such a spokesman is found to increase awareness of the advertising and change consumers' image of the company.
144. KERIM, ROGER A. and THOMAS E. BARRY, "The CEO Spokesperson in Consumer Advertising: An Experimental Investigation." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1981, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor. University of Michigan Press, 1981, pp. 135-147.
The impact of the CEO spokesperson as endorser versus a model representing the CEO is assessed on four variables of advertising effectiveness using a magazine advertisement.
145. MOWEN, JOHN C. and STEPHEN W. BROWN, "On Explaining and Predicting the Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsers." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 8, ed. Kent B. Monroe. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1980, pp. 437-441.
Results are reported of an experiment examining consumers' perceptions of endorsers who promote multiple versus single products, and of products promoted by multiple versus single endorsers.
146. ORPEN, CHRISTOPHER, "Reactions to Black and White Models." Journal of Advertising Research 15, 5 (October 1975): 75-79.
The effect of black versus white models in advertisements directed to blacks of various social class is examined. Using preference as the criterion variable, results suggest that it makes little difference whether white or black models are used.
147. PETERSON, ROBERT A. and ROGER A. KERIN, "The Female Role in Advertisements: Some Experimental Evidence." Journal of Marketing 41, 4 (October 1977): 59-63.
This article examines the effects of nudity and sexual overtones in advertisements and the way in which men and women react to them.
148. REID, LEONARD N. and LAWRENCE C. SOLEY, "Another Look at the 'Decorative' Female Model: The Recognition of Visual and Verbal Ad Components." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1981, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981, pp. 123-133.
Using Starch-scored ads to test for recognition differences, the authors find visual recognition significantly affected by presence of female decorative models, but find no effect on verbal recognition by presence or absence of decorative female models.
149. RUBIN, VICKI, CAROL MAGER, and HERSHEY H. FRIEDMAN, "Company President Versus Spokesperson in Television Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 22, 4 (August/September 1982): 31-33.
Results of this study suggest that using a company president as an endorser can help improve subjects' rating of the commercial.
150. WHIPPLE, THOMAS W. and ALICE E. COURTNEY, "How to Portray Women in TV Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 2 (April 1980): 53-59.
In an attempt to measure the influence of role depiction on evaluation of effectiveness and irritation of advertising, six commercials were rated by consumers and advertising practitioners. General findings suggest that "progressive" sex-role portrayals in television commercials are at least equally preferred to traditional advertising approaches.
RELATIONSHIP TO FREQUENCY AND PROGRAM CONTEXT
151. ALPERT, MARK I., LINDA L. GOLDEN, and WAYNE D. HOYER, "The Impact of Repetition on Advertisement Miscomprehension and Effectiveness." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 130-135.
The impact of multiple television advertising exposures on miscomprehension and other variables of advertising effectiveness is assessed. Results suggest repetition may not improve comprehension, and indicate evidence of a wearout effect.
152. AXELROD, JOEL N., "Advertising Wearout." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 5 (October 1980): 13-18.
This article reviews studies of commercial wearout and considers past findings in terms of the dependent measures and their relationship to sales effectiveness of the commercial.
153. CACIOPPO, JOHN T. and RICHARD E. PETTY, "Persuasiveness of Communications Affected by Exposure Frequency and Message Quality: A Theoretical and
Empirical Analysis of Persisting Attitude Change." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1980, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980, pp. 97-122.
Several social-psychological analyses concerning the effect of message repetition on persuasion are discussed. Two experiments on content based exposure effects on persuasion are reported.
154. CALDER, BOBBY J. and BRIAN STERNTHAL, "Television Commercial Wearout: An Information Processing View." Journal of Marketing Research 17 (May 1980): 173-186.
Multiple dependent variables are measured in an experimental study using commercials embedded in program content. Wearout in viewers' evaluation of the commercial and advertised product occurs despite use of strategies used to enhance attention.
155. CRAIG, C. SAMUEL, BRIAN STERNTHAL, and CLARK LEAVITT, "Advertising Wearout: An Experimental Analysis." Journal of Marketing Research 13 (November 1976): 365-372.
Two experiments examine the effect of high levels of print ad repetition on brand name recall. Results indicate that audience inattentiveness and loss of motivation for recalling brand names contribute to wearout when repetition is high.
156. DOWLING, GRAHAME R., "Information Content in U.S. and Australian TV Advertising." Journal of Marketing 44,4 (Fall 1980): 34-37.
This article presents a comparison of study results for U.S. and Australian advertising, indicating differences in informativeness and its relationship to screening time and type of product advertised.
157. GRASS, ROBERT C. and WALLACE H. WALLACE, "Advertising Communication: Print Versus TV." Journal of Advertising Research 14, 5 (October 1974): 19-23.
Six full-page advertisements (developed from existing television commercials) and the television commercials are evaluated for message teaching effectiveness by measurement of verbal recall of ad content. Television commercials are found to be almost twice as effective as magazine advertisements.
158. KLEIN, GARY, "Relative Advertising Channel Effectiveness: A Test of Learning Versus Involvement Orientations." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1981, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981, pp. 71-84.
Involvement Theory is used to explain significantly greater recall of print and radio ads, compared to TV ads, immediately after exposure and two weeks later.
159. SAWYER, ALAN G., "The Effects of Repetition of Refutational and Supportive Advertising Appeals." Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1973): 23-33.
The effects of repetition of refutational and supportive advertising appeals on purchase intention is studied in an experimental setting. Several significant three-way interactions are found between repetition, advertising appeal, and brand usage patterns.
160. SOLDOW, GARY F. and VICTOR PRINCIPE, "Response to Commercials as a Function of Program Context." Journal of Advertising Research 21, 2 (April 1981): 59-65.
Influence of program involvement on four dimensions of television commercial effectiveness is investigated in an experimental setting. Hypotheses of an inverse relationship between program involvement and commercial effectiveness are supported.
161. WEBB, PETER H. and MICHAEL L. RAY, "Effects of TV Clutter." Journal of Advertising Research 19, 3 (June 1979): 7-12.
This laboratory study investigates the effects of variations in the amount and type of clutter on commercial message effectiveness. Results indicate that clutter has the most impact on attention, recall, and cognitive response.
USE IN PUBLIC POLICY DECISION MAKING
RESEARCH ON ADVERTISING TO CHILDREN
162. BARRY, THOMAS E. and RICHARD W. HANSEN, "How Race Affects Children's TV Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 13, 5 (October 1973): 63-67.
Results of this study showing television commercials to second-grade students indicate no differences between black and white children in recall performances, and a difference between black and white children's commercial preferences.
163. CHELES-MILLER, PAMELA, "Reactions to Marital Roles in Commercials." Journal of Advertising Research 15, 4 (August 1975): 45-49.
Multiple regression analysis on data for over 200 fourth- and fifth-grade children indicates that some demographic and attitudinal variables are related to a child's susceptibility to stereotypes of social role models projected in television commercials.
164. CHRISTENSON, PETER GILBERT, "Children's Perceptions of TV Commercials and Products: The Effect of PSA's." Communication Research 9, 4 (October 1982): 491-524.
Using public service announcements to determine whether television advertising influences (a) children's awareness of the intent of advertising; (b) children's belief in its truthfulness; and (c) their perceptions of advertised products, this study shows that awareness increases in a group of younger children, and belief in truthfulness drops in both groups of younger and older children.
165. DONOHUE, THOMAS R., TIMOTHY P. MEYER, and LUCY L. HENKE, "Black and White Children: Perceptions of TV Commercials." Journal of Marketing 42, 4 (October 1978): 34-40.
Product expectations and cognitive responses initiated by television commercials are examined using black and white children.
166. GOLDBERG, MARVIN E. and GERALD J, GORN, "Children's Reactions to Television Advertising: An Experimental Approach." Journal of Consumer Research 1, 2 (September 1974 ): 69-75.
Using a 3 x 3 factorial design, this experiment examines the effects of the number of TV commercials a child sees for a toy, and the child's expectancy of receiving that toy. The findings suggest that while a single commercial increases motivated behavior to obtain the toy, further exposures do not increase this behavior.
167. HESLOP, LOUISE A. and ADRIAN B. RYANS, "A Second Look at Children and the Advertising of Premiums." Journal of Consumer Research 6, 4 (March 1980): 414-420.
While varying the levels of premium emphasis for a cereal product, the effects of advertising to children are examined in a setting involving mother-child interaction. The results show that although this type of advertising may have a marginal impact on preferences, it has little effect on the final decision.
168. LAURIE, LIZ, "Measuring Commercial Impact." Journal of Advertising Research 15, 4 (August 1975): 23-25.
The author reports on a testing method for measuring commercial impact on children, ages 6 to 12.
169. MACKLIN, M. CAROLE, "The Influence of Task Demands on Outcomes: Preliminary Findings and Theoretical Implications to Advertising Research Involving Children." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 277-282.
The ability of verbal and non-verbal tasks to measure response of children's short-term memory to television commercials is examined. Generally, non-verbal measures are found to be better than verbal recall ones on remembering brands, attributes, and incidental information.
170. MILLER, JOSEPH H., JR. and PAUL BUSCH, "Host Selling Versus Premium TV Commercials: An Experimental Evaluation of Their Influence on Children." Journal of Marketing Research 16 (August 1979): 323-332.
An experimental analysis finds premium format commercials more effective than host and announcer commercials in producing desired behavioral changes. Children's sex, race, and stage of cognitive development are also assessed.
171. RIECKEN, GLEN and A. COSKUN SAMLI, ''Measuring Children's Attitudes Toward Television Commercials: Extension and Replication." Journal of Consumer Research 8, 1 (June 1981): 57-61.
Building upon Rossiter's short objective test for measuring children's attitudes toward TV commercials, this study extends that test to three product categories. In all categories, high internal consistency and moderate test reliability are found.
172. ROBERTSON, THOMAS S. and JOHN R. ROSSITER, "Children and Commercial Persuasion: An Attribution Theory Analysis." Journal of Consumer Research 1, (June 1974 ): 13-20.
The results of this study to investigate attribution theory, suggest that when a child attributes persuasive intent to commercials, he likes them less, is less likely to want the advertised product, and considers the commercial less believable.
173. ROSSITER, JOHN R., "Reliability of a Short Test Measuring Children's Attitudes Toward TV Commercials." Journal of Consumer Research 3, 4 (March 1977): 179-184.
The test presented in this article has high internal-consistency reliability and satisfactory test-retest reliability when measuring children's attitudes toward commercials.
174. RUST, LANGBOURNE and THOMAS A. WATKINS, "Children's Commercials: Creative Development." Journal of Advertising Research 15, 5 (October 1975): 21-26.
This study reports the effects of television commercials on six- to nine-year-old children. Important commercial elements found to hold children's attention are action and story line.
175. SHIMP, TERENCE A., ROBERT F. DYER, and SALVATORE F. DIVITA, "An Experimental Test of the Harmful Effects of Premium-Oriented Commercials on Children." Journal of Consumer Research 3, 1 (June 1976): 1-11.
In response to a proposed FTC ban on child-directed TV commercials which promote premiums, this experimental test was found to be non supportive of the FTC position. The results also question the legitimacy of the proposed FTC guide.
176. WARTELLA , ELLEN and JAMES S. ETTEMA, "A Cognitive Developmental Study of Children's Attention to Television Commercials." Communication Research 1,
1 (January 1974): 69-88.
Rating television commercials in terms of the information theory measure of television content developed by Watt and Krull, this study suggests that the younger the child, the higher the influence of perceptual attributes of television commercials on his/her attention behavior.
RESEARCH ON COMPARATIVE ADVERTISING
177. BELCH, GEORGE L., " An Examination of Comparative and Noncomparative Television Commercials: The Effects of Claim Variation and Repetition on Cognitive Response and Message Acceptance." Journal of Marketing Research 18 (August 1981): 333-349.
An experimental study using comparative and noncomparative commercials reveals no significant differences on outcome measures of communication effectiveness, attitude, or purchase intent. Differences in cognitive response activity for the two types of messages are found, with comparative messages yielding more negative responses.
178. EARL, RONALD L. and WILLIAM. PRIDE, "The Effects of Advertisement Structure, Message-Sidedness and Performance Test and Results on Print Advertisement Informativeness." Journal of Advertising 9, 3 (1980): 36-46.
This article presents the results of a factorial-design experiment regarding the effects of comparative messages, message-sidedness, and the use of performance test results in print advertisements on reader perception and awareness.
179. GOLDEN, LINDA L., "Consumer Reactions to Explicit Brand Comparisons in Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 16 (November 1979): 517-532.
Effectiveness of comparative and noncomparative advertising is measured on five dependent variables. Impact of competitive position, claim substantiation, and theme are assessed, with degrees of brand loyalty treated as covariates.
180. GOODWIN, STEPHEN and MICHAEL ETGAR, "An Experimental Investigation of Comparative Advertising: Impact of Message Appeal, Information Load, and Utility of Product Class." Journal of Marketing Research 17 (May 1980): 187-202.
A factorial design is used to assess commercial effectiveness on three modes of advertising appeals. Overall, comparative advertising is shown to be less effective than expected, although only a single exposure to the ads is used.
181. GORN, GERALD J. and CHARLES B. WEINBERG, "Comparative Advertising: Some Positive Results." In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pp. 377-380.
Using print ads in several product categories, this study examines effects of comparative and noncomparative advertising by a challenger in the presence and absence of brand leader advertising. Effects of comparative advertising on attitude change are reported.
182. LAMB, CHARLES W., JR., BARBARA A. PLETCHER, and WILLIAM M. PRIDE, "Print Readers' Perceptions of Various Advertising Formats." Journalism Quarterly 56 (Summer 1979): 328-335.
Using mock advertisements in a laboratory experiment, this study goes beyond a simple analysis of comparative and noncomparative ads, and looks at differentiative and associative messages, as well as varying levels of intensity.
183. LEVINE, PHILIP, "Commercials That Name Competing Brands." Journal of Advertising Research 16, 6 (December 1976): 7-14 .
A pre/post copy test contrasts three sets of eight television commercials to determine differences in the effects of commercials that name competitors versus advertising that does not specifically identify competition, on measures of attitudes toward the advertising, awareness, communication, and persuasion. Results suggest that the only beneficiary of comparative advertising may be the competitor named in the commercial.
184. MCDOUGALL, G.H.G., "Comparative Advertising: The Effect of Claim Type and Brand Loyalty." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1978, eds. James Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1978, pp. 39-52.
McDougall investigates the effect of claim type and brand loyalty on perceived information value of a comparative claim. Results indicate brand loyalty is a significant factor, although effect of claim type is mixed.
185. MURPHY, JOHN H. II and MARY S. AMUNDSEN, "The Communications-Effectiveness of Comparative Advertising for a New Brand on Users of the Dominant Brand." Journal of Advertising 10, 1 (1981): 14-20.
This article outlines an experiment used to evaluate the effectiveness of comparative magazine ad appeal using three treatments: a direct comparative copy appeal, a noncomparative copy appeal, and a "brand X" comparative copy appeal in which comparisons were made with "the leading brand."
186. PRASAD, V. KANTI, "Communications-Effectiveness of Comparative Advertising: A Laboratory Analysis." Journal of Marketing Research 13 (May 1976): 128-137.
In a laboratory situation, the effectiveness of comparative advertisement in relation to their "brand X" counterparts are examined in terms of message recall, claim credibility, and perceived competitive position of the sponsoring brand. Overall results indicate the comparative advertisement generated greater message recall and claim recall, and brand recall equal to that of the "brand X" advertisement, but a lower perceived credibility rating.
187. PRIDE, WILLIAM M., CHARLES W, LAMB, and BARBARA A. PLETCHER, "The Informativeness of Comparative Advertisements: An Empirical Investigation." Journal of Advertising 8, 2 (Spring 1979): 29-35.
Using data from a laboratory experiment, this article examines the informativeness of comparative and noncomparative print advertisements. It also studies the effects of intensity and directionality variables on comparative advertising informativeness. In general, the results indicate that comparative ads do not differ significantly with noncomparative ads in regards to informativeness.
188. SHELUGA, DAVID A. and JACOB JACOBY, "Do Comparative Claims Encourage Comparison Shopping? The Impact of Comparative Claims on Consumers' Acquisition of Product Information." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1978, eds. James Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1978, PP. 23-37.
A simulated shopping task used in a laboratory experiment shows comparative claim is somewhat effective on capturing attention, little effect on subsequent search for product information.
189. SWINYARD, WILLIAM R., "The Interaction Between Comparative Advertising and Copy Claim Variation." Journal of Marketing Research 18 (May 1981): 175-186.
The impact of attribution theory on the credibility and effectiveness of comparative advertising is examined in a controlled field experiment. Two-sided claims are found to affect overall advertising believability and claim acceptance, but only to mediate behavioral response.
RESEARCH ON CORRECTIVE, DECEPTIVE, AND MISLEADING ADVERTISING
190. ARMSTRONG, GARY M., METIN N. GUROL, and FREDERICK A. RUSS, "Detecting and Correcting Deceptive Advertising." Journal of Consumer Research 6, 3 (December 1979): 237-246.
Evaluating the use of the salient belief technique for deception measurement and corrective ad effectiveness, this article compares this technique with the normative belief technique. Findings suggest that the two techniques yield similar results, with the exception of source effects over time.
191. ARMSTRONG, GARY M., GEORGE R. FRANKE, and FREDERICK A. RUSS., "The Effects of Corrective Advertising on Company Image." Journal of Advertising 11, 4 (1982): 39-47.
Using a longitudinal national telephone survey, effects of the Listerine corrective advertising campaign on company image are examined. Findings show a slight, but significant, decrease in company image.
192. BARBOUR, FREDRIC L. II, and DAVID M. GARDNER, "Deceptive Advertising: A Practical Approach to Measurement." Journal of Advertising 11, 1 (1982): 21-30.
To detect and measure deception, subjects are exposed to actual news paper advertisements for automobile tires. Findings indicate deception regarding price, especially with "one price" advertising themes.
193. BELCH, GEORGE E., MICHAEL A. BELCH, ROBERT B. SETTLE, and LISA M. DELUCCHI, "An Examination of Consumers' Perceptions of Purpose and Content of Corrective Advertising," In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 9, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, 1981, pp. 327-332.
Two corrective print advertisements are used to assess consumers' ability to comprehend the purpose and content of corrective advertising. Results indicate education level, product usage, and message format impact upon consumers' perceptions of purpose of the advertising as well as claims refuted in the corrective advertisements.
194. DYER, ROBERT F. and PHILLIP G. KUEHL, "A Longitudinal Study of Corrective Advertising." Journal of Marketing Research 15 (February 1978): 39-48.
Using actual deceptive and corrective advertisements in an experimental setting, longitudinal effects of corrective advertising are measured. Results indicate a single exposure is ineffective in bringing brand beliefs into equilibrium with "normative" belief levels.
195. HARRIS, RICHARD J., TONY M. DUBITSRY, JAMES CONNIZZO, LARRY E. LETCHER, and CINIDY S. ELLERMAN, "Training Consumers About Misleading Advertising: Transfer of Training and Effects of Specialized Knowledge." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1981, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981, pp. 105-122.
This study reports on two experiments to train subjects to objectively evaluate product claims in simulated radio ads. Mixed effects of specialized knowledge on ad comprehension and judgment of product claims, apparently related to memory, are found.
196. HUNT, H. KEITH, "Effects of Corrective Advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 13, 5 (October 1973): 15-22.
This study uses a 3 x 3 factorial design to examine whether different combinations of inoculation and attack result in different levels of attitude toward a corrective advertisement. Findings suggest that corrective advertisements can reduce favorableness of attitude.
197. MAZIS, MICHAEL B. and JANICE E. ADKINSON, "An Experimental Evaluation of a Proposed Corrective Advertising Remedy." Journal of Marketing Research 13 (May 1976 ): 178-183.
The ability of corrective advertising to serve as a tool to reduce the impact of misleading advertising is examined. Findings indicate that the corrective advertisements had substantial influence not only on brand belief but on related beliefs as well.
198. MIZERSKI, RICHARD W., NEIL K. ALLISON, and STEPHEN CALVERT, "A Controlled Field Study of Corrective Advertising Using Multiple Exposures and a Commercial Medium." Journal of Marketing Research 17 (August 1980): 341-348.
Effects of corrective advertising are investigated using an "on-air" radio test and multiple exposures to the commercial. The corrective commercial is effective in lowering target beliefs, but has no significant effect on other dependent variables.
199. NKONGE, JAPHET H. and C. SCOTT GREENE, "The Impact of Communication Medium and Message Format on the Effectiveness of Corrective Messages." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1982, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1982, pp. 89-112.
Experimental findings indicate effectiveness of corrective messages is mediated by message format and medium of transmission.
200. OLSON, JERRY C. and PHILIP A. DOVER, "Cognitive Effects of Deceptive Advertising." Journal of Marketing Research 15 (February 1978):29-38.
Effects of a deceptive product claim on cognitive variables are investigated before and after product trial in a longitudinal experiment. Measurement issues and application of the approach to nonexperimental settings are advanced.
201. ROTFELD, HERBERT J. and KIM B. ROTZOLL, "Puffery Versus Fact Claims - Really Different?" In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1981, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981, pp. 85-103.
Using videotapes of national television commercials, consumers' reactions to "fact claims" and "puffery claims" are assessed. Respondents could not readily distinguish between fact-based claims and puffery.
202. RUSSO, J. EDWARD, BARBARA L. METCALF, and DEBRA STEPHENS, "Identifying Misleading Advertising." Journal of Consumer Research 8, 2 (September 1981): 119-131.
In this article, the authors outline a method for the identification of misleading advertising, based only on measured consumer beliefs. Findings of the experiment indicate that the primary message of the ad is not weakened by promoting the misleading claim.
203. SEMENIK, RICHARD J., "Corrective Advertising: An Experimental Evaluation of Alternative TV Messages." Journal of Advertising 9, 3 (1980): 21-30.
Using FTC corrective message copy, alternative television ads are analyzed experimentally to determine if message content format influences the effects of corrective advertising.
204. SHIMP, TERENCE A., "Do Incomplete Comparisons Mislead?" Journal of Advertising Research 18, 6 (December 1978): 21-27.
In an experimental setting, incomplete comparative statements in script-form commercials are examined for their ability to elicit multiple interpretations beyond the manifest advertising content. Evidence indicates incomplete comparative statements elicit multiple plausible interpretations, some of which may be misleading.
205. VANDEN BERGH, BRUCE G. and LEONARD N. REID, "Effects of Product Puffery Response to Print Advertisements." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1980, eds. James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980, pp. 123-134.
Product puffery in print advertisements is compared with effects of accurate and understated product claims in an experimental product trial situation. Puffery is found to lead to several negative effects.
206. VANDEN BERGH, BRUCE and LEONARD N. REID, "Puffery and Magazine Ad Readership." Journal of Marketing 44, 2 (Spring 1980): 78-81.
Starch readership scores are examined for higher readership scores in magazine ads containing puffery.
207. "Agency Researchers See Copy Testing Gap." Advertising Age 49 (July 10, 1978): cover.
Research executives gather to discuss copy testing and other areas of advertising research. The three major topics covered: 1) the change in copy testing; 2) broadening the function of research within the agency; and 3) international advertising research.
208. "Copy Testing PACT Formed by 21 Agencies." Editor and Publisher 115 (January 16, 1982): 33.
This article presents the reasons behind PACT and the nine principles developed as guidelines of a good copy testing system.
209, "Copy Testing is Still a Nebulous Area." Advertising Age 46 (December 1, 1975): 54.
This article discusses views expressed towards copy research at an AAA Eastern Regional Conference. Highlighted are alternative methods to copy research, the question of who should be conducting tests, and reliability in copy testing.
210. DUNN, THEODORE, "How to Get the Most From Copy Research." Broadcasting 96 (May 21, 1979): 16.
In order to help minimize the confusion about TV copy research, Dunn says three things are necessary: 1) state a clear objective for the commercial; 2) decide upon the objectives of the copy research; and 3) have a clear understanding of what the copy research method attempt to measure.
211. HOLBERT, NEIL BRUCE, "More Articles in Advertising Research." Journal of Advertising Research 17, 4 (August 1977): 33-42.
A review of 72 articles on advertising research published from 1972 to 1976.
212. HONOMICHL, JACK J., "TV Copy Testing Flap: What to Do About It." Advertising Age 52 (January 19, 1981): 59-60.
Honomichl examines traditional conflicts in TV copy testing, particularly the friction between creative personnel and the testing concept itself. He outlines ten suggestions which may help bridge this gap and help advertisers get better creative output from their agency.
213. KOVER, ARTHUR J. and CHARLES LITTLE, "Crises in Copy Testing." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 4 (August 1980): 65-71.
This survey of advertising agency researchers "having direct experience with commercial pretesting" reports on the effects of crises on the copy research decision-making process.
214. LEACH, DAVID C., "Should Ads be Tested?" Advertising Age 51 (October 20, 1980): S28-S29.
In this article, Leach provides an overview of copytesting considering three different areas of measurement (recall, communication, and persuasion) and examines each of these areas and how they can work for an agency in creating more effective advertising.
215. LEVINE, PHILIP, "Tapping the Potential of Copy Tests." Advertising Age 50 (October 15, 1979): S18-S19.
Levine addresses major issues in copy test research such as: Who is responsible for copy testing? When should copy testing be done? What should be measured? etc., and calls for a more cooperative effort towards the issue itself.
216. MCMAHAN, HARRY and MACK KILE, "Testing Copy Research, An Old Nasty Sore." Advertising Age 52 (August 3, 1981): 4 0.
The authors evaluate discrepancies between products, which tested well, but were commercial failures, and vice-versa. Specifically, numerous factors are looked at which can combine for successful advertising, calling the "personality" of a commercial the vital factor which may make the difference in successful advertising.
217. OSTLUND, LYMAN E., "Advertising Copy Testing: A Review of Current Practices,
Problems, and Prospects." In Current Issues and Research in Advertising 1978, eds. James Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1978, pp. 87-105.
A thorough review and critique of copy testing methods and important issues. Ostlund concludes copy testing research has changed little since its inception, despite the vast sums annually spent on such research.
218. OSTLUND, LYMAN E., KEVIN J. CLANCY, and RAKESH SAPRA, "Inertia in Copy Research." Journal of Advertising Research 20, 1 (February 1980): 17-23.
Based on a survey of researchers in the top 100 U.S. agencies, the authors conclude advertisers and agencies are spending money on copy testing services that provide little information on test validity, reliability, or sensitivity.
219. PURCELL, ANDREW J., "Get Creative People Involved in Copy-Testing Research." Broadcasting 90 (May 17, 1976): 13.
Purcell calls for the inclusion of creative personnel in the copy testing process, illustrating what can happen when research and creative teams work together.
220. SAWYER, H.G., "There's Value in Ad Pre-Testing, and It's Easier than You Think." Industrial Marketing 61 (February 1976): 34-35.
Sawyer discusses why industrial advertising is so seldom pre-tested, due to industrial advertisers' perceptions of the relative insignificance of pre-testing. He concludes by pointing out that the pre-testing process is just as valuable for industrial advertisers as it is for retail advertisers.
221. SWINYARD, WILLIAM R. and CHARLES H. PATTI, "The Communications Hierarchy Framework for Evaluating Copytesting Techniques." Journal of Advertising 8, 3 (Summer 1979): 29-36.
This article provides a framework for improving the understanding of copytesting techniques and their application to product categories through the examination of actual copytesting data.
© 1984 Patricia A. Stout and John D. Leckenby