Department of Advertising

Modality Considerations

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

As this web site develops, in the space below we will provide a bibliography of articles and books relevant to this topic. To the extent practical, bibliographic references will be annotated.

Anyone interested in submitting additional bibliographic material for this reference page, or for any of the others at this site, is welcome to send such material via e-mail to jef@mail.utexas.edu. Please type the references in the same format as is used here, and keep the annotations to a few sentences.

  1. Scott S. Liu and Patricia A. Stout (1987). Effects of Message Modality and Appeal on Advertising Acceptance. Psychology and Marketing, 4 (3): 167-88.

    The research investigates the impact of message modes (Audiovisual vs. audio-only) and appeals (factual vs. emotional) on consumer responses to advertising in an experiment with 98 undergraduates. Alternative process models are also tested which describe the causal relationships among emotional response, cognitive response, attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand. Actual television commercials for a brand of coffee and a long distance services are used as the experimental stimuli. Results of the study reveals differential impact of modality as well as message appeals on consumer's emotional and cognitive responses generate during advertising exposure.

  2. David W. Stewart, Sid Hecker, and John L. Graham (1987). It's More Than What You Say: Assessing the Influence of Nonverbal Communication in Marketing. Psychology and Marketing, 4 (4): 303-22.

    The paper reviews research on nonverbal communication and discusses relevant theoretical perspectives and issues as they relate to advertising and personal selling. In the context of advertising, a particular attention is given to conceptual and methodological approaches to studying nonverbal cues in ads. Future applications of the extant knowledge regarding nonverbal communication and directions for research are also discussed.

  3. Arthur E. Heimbach and Richard F. Yalch (1987). The Affective and Cognitive Dimensions of Pictures in Advertising: An Extension of Mitchell & Olson. Advances in Consumer Research, 15: 178-83.

    This study attempts to replicate and extend a 1981 research by Mitchell and Olson on the effect of pictorial and verbal information by employing a revised procedure (e.g., use of between-subject instead of within-subject design). The investigation involves student subjects who are shown slides containing the experimental ads. Contrary to the findings of the Mitchell and Olson, it is found that the picture ads yield less favorable brand attitudes than the verbal-only ads. The results of the regression analysis also suggest that the attitude toward the ad measure may not be a consistently useful predictor of brand attitudes.

  4. Michael J. Houston, Terry L. Childers, and Susan E. Heckler (1987). Picture-Word Consistency and the Elaborative Processing of Advertisements. Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (November): 359-69.

    From a review of theory and research on the effects of pictorial ad elements. several hypotheses are formulated concerning the relative effectiveness on memory of the consistence vs. discrepancy between the pictorial and verbal components in ads. Three experiments using mock-up print ads are conducted to test the hypotheses and explore the theoretical explanation for the effects observed. Results indicate superior recall for ads in which the picture and copy convey discrepant information about the product attributes when the picture and brand name are linked interactively. This superiority is found to diminish when receivers have less opportunity to process the ad and form associative linkage in memory.

  5. Sandra E. Moriarty (1987). A Content Analysis of Visuals Used in Print Media Advertising. Journalism Quarterly, 64 (2): 550-54.

    The study examines the functions of two types of visuals (literal vs. symbolic) in advertising and the frequency with which they are used and their effectiveness as measured by the Starch readership scores. A content analysis is conducted with 222 Starch scored ads. The research reveals an overwhelming use of photographs compared to illustrations, and more frequent use of symbolic visuals than literal visuals in the magazines ads studied. A significant variation by types of visuals is found in terms of "seen" scores, but not in "read most" scores.

  6. Wendy Bryce and Thomas J. Olney (1987). Modality Effects in Television Advertising: A Methodology for Isolating Message Structure from Message Content Effects. Advances in Consumer Research, 15: 174-77.

    This paper describes a six-step procedure to construct content redundant pictorial and verbal versions of television ads. Content redundant pictorial-only and verbal-only message are created for three different products and used to examine modality effects on memory in a laboratory experiment conducted with student subjects. Results provide support for the "picture-superiority" effect on memory as measured by recall and recognition.

  7. Sanford Grossbart, Darrel D. Muehling and Norman Kangun (1986). Verbal and Visual References to Competition in Comparative Advertising. Journal of Advertising, 15 (1): 10-23.

    The impact of comparative vs. noncomparative formats with verbal and/or visual references is assessed on recall, perceived clarity, acceptance of claims, attitude toward the sponsor, and intention to buy. A wide range of covariates are also identified for each of these variables. Print ads are used as stimuli in an experiment with college students. Findings suggest that some trade-offs are necessary between advantages and disadvantages of different formats depending on an advertiser's objectives.

  8. Michael A. Kamins and Lawrence J. Marks (1986). The Effect of Framing and Advertising Sequencing on Attitude Consistency and Behavioral Intentions. Advances in Consumer Research, 14: 168- 72.

    This study investigates the effects of message framing and order of presentation on attitude structure and attitude-behavioral intention consistency. A field experiment is conducted with a group of adults via a mail questionnaire which contains both framed and unframed ads employing a specific order of presentation. The results of the study suggest that the sequencing by which the subjects viewed the framed and unframed ads influence the consistency among attitude components and attitude- behavioral intention consistency. Findings are discussed in the context of the availability-valance hypothesis.

  9. Karen A. Johnson, Mary R. Zimmer, and Linda L. Golden (1986). Object Relations Theory: Male and Female Differences in Visual Information Processing. Advances in Consumer Research, 14: 83-87.

    Based on object relations theory, various hypotheses are tested regarding the male and female differences in visual information processing and perceptions in a laboratory experiment. 82 college students are exposed to two types of ads differing in theme (high connected theme showing relationships among people vs. low connected theme presenting isolated objects). The study uses various versions of two actual television commercials for familiar soft drink brands that have not been aired in the experimental locale. The analysis of the ad content recalled by the subjects provides partial support for the object relation theory. It is found that for the high connected ad females report seeing relationships stated in gender role terms more than males, supporting the object relations theory. However, no sex differences are found in the frequency of recall of isolated elements for the low connected ad.

  10. Scott S. Liu (1986). Picture-Image Memory of TV Advertising in Low-Involvement Situations: A Psychophysiological Analysis. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 9 (1): 27-60.

    The article discusses the role of consumers' picture-image memory engaged by television advertising from a psychophysiological perspective. Derived from theoretical views and empirical findings in the literature of various disciplines, three major topic areas are examined: conditions relating to the generation of picture-image memory, the processing of picture-image memory, and the impact of picture-image memory on consumer behavior. Implications for future research and practice are also discussed.

  11. Andrew A. Mitchell (1986). The Effect of Verbal and Visual Components of Advertisements on Brand Attitudes and Attitude Toward the Advertisement. Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (June): 12-24.

    This article presents the results of an experiment examining the effects of verbal versus visual information in ads on product attribute beliefs, attitudes (including attitudes toward the ad), and purchase intentions. Sixty nine undergraduate student subjects are exposed to ads for hypothetical products that contain affect-laden pictures with different valences. This study provides evidence that attitude toward the ad and brand attitudes are separate constructs. Results indicate that the affect-laden photographs impact on brand attitudes as well as attitudes toward the ad, but not on beliefs. In addition, positively evaluated pictures are found to create more favorable attitudes toward the ad and brand attitudes whereas the reverse holds true for negatively evaluated photographs. The effects of visual and verbal components found are explained based on a Dual Component model developed.

  12. Elizabeth C. Hirschman (1986). The Effect of Verbal and Pictorial Advertising Stimuli on Aesthetic, Utilitarian and Familiarity Perceptions. Journal of Advertising, 15 (2): 27-34.

    Findings of this experimental study indicate that "all-verbal" advertising stimuli are viewed by consumers as more utilitarian/rational and "all-visual" stimuli as more familiar. Asthetic/emotional perceptions of advertising stimuli yield mixed results in this study.

  13. Terry L. Childers, Susan E. Heckler, and Michael J. Houston (1986), Memory for the Visual and Verbal Components of Print Advertisements. Psychology and Marketing, 3(3): 137-50.

    Based on the past research a model is developed that describes the underlying process of the visual and verbal components of print ads. The model views these two components as consisting of different levels of processing, elaborative encoding, and encoding distinctiveness. The model is tested in an empirical study involving a sample of undergraduates. Recall and recognition performance are measured of mock-up print ads developed for 10 different products. The research reveals superior memory for pictorially conveyed product information as a results of more elaborative and distinctive encoding compared to verbally conveyed information. Findings also suggest that the two forms of encoding (elaborative encoding and distinctive encoding) act in concert to produce a picture superiority effect.

  14. Thomas D. Jensen and Larry W. Rottmeyer (1985). Visual Information Processing of Television Commercials: Cognitive Effects. Advances in Consumer Research, 13: 158-163.

    This paper describes a theory and methodology for examining viewers' chunking of ongoing visual information while viewing commercials. The number of boundaries of information chunks ("breakpoints") indicated by message recipients is hypothesized to affect information processing and in turn subsequent beliefs and attitude. Authentic television commercials for frequently purchased nondurable products are used in an experimental study with 209 college students. Findings show support for the hypothesis.

  15. Peter R. Dickson, Robert E. Burnkrant, Paul W. Miniard, and Hanumantha R. Unnava (1985). If It Isn't a Duck Then Why Did It Quack? Competing Explanations For an Observed Effect of Illustrations in an Advertisement. Advances in Consumer Research, 13: 153-57.

    This study explores competing explanations for the observed moderating effects of illustration on advertising copy in the 1984 research by Kisielius and Sternthal. The experiment involving 555 student subjects employs the same copy, pictures and dependent measures as Kisielius and Sternthal's. In contrast to the Kisielius and Sternthal, this study finds that illustrations added to advertising copy enhances belief formation and attitude toward the product.

  16. Yehosua Tsal (1984). Effects of Verbal and Visual Information on Brand Attitudes. Advances in Consumer Research, 12: 265-67.

    The research investigates the effects of message argument strength and picture attractiveness on brand attitudes and the moderating role of involvement in the process. In an experiment employing a within-subject design, 16 undergraduate students are shown slides of mock-up ads and questioned 30 hours later. Results of the study show that although little argument and picture information are recalled, both argument strength and picture attractiveness have significant effects on brand attitudes under both high and low involvement conditions.

  17. Richard W. Pollay and Steve Mainprize (1984). Headlining of Visuals in Print Advertising: A Typology of Tactical Techniques. Proceedings of the 1984 Convention of the American Academy of Advertising, Donald R. Glover (ed.): 24-28.

    This paper discusses the role of the headline and its interplay with the role of visual and textual content in print advertising. Four common techniques of captioning through headlining are described: display, double-entendre, metaphor and puzzle. Characteristics of each are discussed in terms of how they function to establish coherence between visual and verbal elements in print ads.

  18. Terry L. Childers and Michael J. Houston (1984). Conditions for a Picture-Superiority Effect on Consumer Memory. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, (September): 643-54.

    This study examines various processing conditions under which pictorial ads are or are not remembered better than verbal-only ads. The conditions vary by depth of processing, level of meaning conveyed about an attribute of the product advocated, and degree of sensory distinctiveness. An experiment involving 71 college student subjects is conducted using professionally reconstructed ads taken from the yellow pages in metropolitan telephone directories. Findings show picture superiority in immediate as well as delayed recall when processing is directed at sensory features of the ads. When processing is directed at the semantic content of the ads, verbal-only stimuli are found to be remembered as well as pictures in immediate recall but become inferior in delayed recall tasks.

  19. Russell I. Haley, Jack Richardson, and Beth M. Baldwin (1984). The Effects of Nonverbal Communication in Television Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 24 (August/September): 11-19.

    The authors identify from the literature 17 areas of nonverbal communication such as setting, facial cues and commercial format. Using 510 individual nonverbal codes developed for the 17 areas, a trained team of 175 students coded 47 TV commercials. The effects of nonverbal elements in the ads are examined on pre-post persuasion measures. The persuasion measure data are provided by a commercial copy testing service using a prerecruited audience and a cable on-air exposure method. Results show relatively high negative correlations between nonverbal elements and persuasion. The study also finds a low correlation between recall and persuasion, questioning the use of recall performance as an indicator of persuasion in the evaluation of nonverbal elements in advertising.

  20. Werner Kroeber-Riel (1983). Effects of Emotional Pictorial Elements in Ads Analyzed by Means of Eye Movement Monitoring. Advances in Consumer Research, 11: 591-600.

    This paper reports an empirical investigation which utilizes eye movement monitoring techniques to examine the impact of emotional picture elements in ads. Results are shown to demonstrate that eye movement monitoring can inform on the extent of the effected cognitive activities, the selective information acquisition and processing, and suggestions why product evaluation changes more or less strongly and which directions such changes take.

  21. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Michael R. Solomon (1983). Utilitarian, Aesthetic, and Familiarity Responses to Verbal Versus Visual Advertisements. Advances in Consumer Research, 11: 426-31.

    The research investigates consumers' perceptions of visual vs. verbal ads along three dimensions (functional utility, aesthetic value, and familiarity). Versions of two ads (one taken from Connoisseur and the other from Architectural Digest magazines) are used as stimuli in an experiment with 162 students and non-student adults. Results of the study indicate that all- verbal ads are rated as more utilitarian/rational and less familiar than all- visual ads. In this study, all-visual ads are found to have no higher or even lower rating than all-verbal ads on the aesthetic/emotional dimension.

  22. Julie A. Edell and Richard Staelin (1983). The Information Processing of Pictures in Print Advertisements. Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (June): 45- 61.

    This study develops and empirically tests a process model conceptualizing how information in the verbal portion of the ad affects the processing of the information in the pictorial portion, and vice versa. Subjects varying in age, between 20 and 28, are shown full-page, color mock-up print ads developed for hypothetical brands of three durable products (car, camera, and calculator) in a forced-exposure setting. The response measurement includes eye movement, verbal protocol, recall and other cognitive structure measures. The results indicate that the way a message is conveyed (verbally or pictorially), whether the viewer is given some reference point for encoding the picture (framed or nonframed), and the type of claims made (objective, subjective, or characterization) have a significant effect on the processing of the information, brand attitudes and purchase intentions. This study also shows that picture-verbal message congruency and incongruency involve very different processes.

  23. Jef I. Richards and Richard Zakia (1981). Pictures: An Advertiser's Expressway Through FTC Regulation. Georgia Law Review, 16: 77-134.

    The FTC has a long history of regulating the verbal claims made by advertisements. However, it has very limited experience with visual communications. These authors argue that this bias does not result from greater deception through words, but rather from the verbally-oriented expertise of lawyers at the agency. They posit that pictures can and should be regulated with the same vigor as words.

© 1995, 1996, 1997 Jef I. Richards
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