Department of Advertising

Source Effects

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

As this web site develops, in the space below we will provide a bibliography of articles and books relevant to this topic. To the extent practical, bibliographic references will be annotated.

Anyone interested in submitting additional bibliographic material for this reference page, or for any of the others at this site, is welcome to send such material via e-mail to jef@mail.utexas.edu. Please type the references in the same format as is used here, and keep the annotations to a few sentences.

Age of Source

  1. Linda E. Swayne and Alan J. Greco (1987). The Portrayal of Older Americans in Television Commercials. Journal of Advertising, 16 (1): 47-54.

    The representation and role portrayal of senior citizens in television advertising are assessed through a content analysis of ads from three major television networks. Findings show underrepresentation of the elderly in television commercials across all of the three networks. It is also found that where elderly are used, they are not typically cast in major roles but instead portrayed most often in a home setting with members of other age groups present; and that when portrayed as major role advisors about a product or service, the advisor is more likely to be male.

  2. Troy A. Festervand and James R. Lumpkin (1985). Response of Elderly Consumers to Their Portrayal by Advertisers. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 8 (1): 203-226.

    The attitudes toward their portrayal in ads and the impact of these attitude on buying behavior are measured among 271 elderly consumers. Results indicate that the elderly have negative attitudes toward their portrayal in ads. The study further indicates that the inaccurate portrayal of the elderly in ads may result in the limited boycotting of some products, particularly among the elderly described as being heavy viewers of television, active, and older on the average.

  3. Lynn Langmeyer (1984). Senior Citizens and Television Advertisements: A Research Note. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 7 (1): 167-178.

    An experiment is conducted among members of a Senior Citizen Center in a mid-western city to explore elderly people's perceptions of role portrayals in prime-time television commercials selected through a content analysis of 518 commercials for nationally advertised products. Results indicate that stereotyped portrayals of elderly people in television commercials are neutral and inoffensive to the elderly people watching them.

Attractiveness of Source

  1. Lynn R. Kahle and Pamela M. Homer (1985). Physical Attractiveness of the Celebrity Endorser: A Social Adaptation Perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 11 (March): 954-961.

    An experiment is conducted with a sample of 200 undergraduate students to test the effect of the celebrity source in ads on recall, recognition, attitudes and purchase intentions. The authors attempt to replicate Petty et al.'s 1983 study of the source effectiveness following the procedure Petty et al. employed and using a print ad for the same brand of razor. Unlike Petty et al., the likability and attractiveness dimensions are differentiated in this study. Three factors manipulated include celebrity-source physical attractiveness, celebrity-source likability, and consumer product involvement. Attitudes and purchase intentions are found to change due to celebrity-source attractiveness, but not celebrity-source likability. The results are interpreted as supporting social adaptation theory.

  2. Gary B. Wilcox, John H. Murphy and Peter S. Sheldon (1985). Effects of Attractiveness of the Endorser on the Performance of Testimonial Ads. Journalism Quarterly, 62 (3): 548-52.

    The research examines the effects of the attractiveness of male and female endorsers on the performance of a print testimonial ad across two different types of products (one related to attractiveness in product use and the other unrelated). The study is composed of 245 undergraduates who are exposed to the mock-up ads in a simulated magazine environment. findings indicate that physical attractiveness of the endorser influence the affective and conative dimensions of attitude, but not cognitive dimension. The study also reveals that for both products ads are evaluated highest in conative measure in the most attractive condition.

Celebrities

  1. Paul Surgi Speck, David W. Schumann, and Craig Thompson (1987). Celebrity Endorsements -- Scripts, Schema and Roles: Theoretical Framework and Preliminary Tests. Advances in Consumer Research, 15: 69-76.

    A script- and schema-based model of celebrity endorsement influence is tested in an experiment with undergraduates employing a 2 (celebrity relatedness to product :expert vs. non-expert ) X 3(relational cue: expert vs. typical user vs. neutral) X 2 (processing time: 20 vs. 60 seconds) X 2 (product: car vs. tennis shoe) design. Results of the study are mixed, not fully supporting the proposed model. Findings are discussed from the script and schema processing perspectives.

  2. Lynn R. Kahle and Pamela M. Homer (1985). Physical Attractiveness of the Celebrity Endorser: A Social Adaptation Perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 11 (March): 954-961.

    An experiment is conducted with a sample of 200 undergraduate students to test the effect of the celebrity source in ads on recall, recognition, attitudes and purchase intentions. The authors attempt to replicate Petty et al.'s 1983 study of the source effectiveness following the procedure Petty et al. employed and using a print ad for the same brand of razor. Unlike Petty et al., the likability and attractiveness dimensions are differentiated in this study. Three factors manipulated include celebrity-source physical attractiveness, celebrity-source likability, and consumer product involvement. Attitudes and purchase intentions are found to change due to celebrity-source attractiveness, but not celebrity-source likability. The results are interpreted as supporting social adaptation theory.

  3. Wayne S. DeSarbo and Richard A. Harshman (1985). Celebrity-Brand Congruence Analysis. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 8 (1): 17-52.

    This paper proposes a method for uncovering the perceptual-cognitive overtones of both product and spokespersons, and examines their relationships. The authors demonstrate an application of the PARAFAC three-way factor analysis procedure to individuals' associative judgments (measured on a set of semantic differential scales) through an illustrative study designed to determine which celebrities are more appropriate to endorse particular makes of U.S. automobiles. Other applications and limitations of the method are also discussed in detail.

  4. Charles Atkin and Martin Block (1983). Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsers. Journal of Advertising Research, 23 (February/March): 57-61.

    This study investigates the influence of celebrity sources in the alcohol advertising context. Print ads for three alcoholic beverages are used in an experiment. The sample consists of a total of 196 teenagers and adults with various characteristics. Results indicate ads featuring celebrity figures produce more favorable ad evaluation ratings and product image, but not believability of the ad or the likelihood of actually purchasing the product.

Source Effects, Generally

  1. David J. Moore and Richard Reardon (1987). Source Magnification: The Role of Multiple Sources in the Processing of Advertising Appeals. Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (November): 412-17.

    This study attempts to determine whether the source magnification effects found in a previous study can apply to a print advertising context. Based on the previous study findings, a greater polarization of attitudes in response to strong vs. weak message argument/quality is hypothesized to occur when receivers are exposed to multiple sources rather than a single source. Mock-up print ads are used as stimuli in a laboratory experiment conducted with 80 students. Cognitive response and attitudes regarding the ad and product are measured. Results of the study support the hypothesized effect of source magnification in both attitudes and thoughts generated during the exposure to the ad.

  2. Alan J. Bush, William C. Moncrief, and Valarie A. Ziethaml (1987). Source Effects in Professional Services Advertising. Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 10 (1): 153-171.

    The impact of types of spokesperson and profession on the perceived credibility of doctors, lawyers, dentists, and chiropractors are assessed using a 3 (type of spokesperson) x 4 (type of professional) between-subjects factorial design. A sample of 343 undergraduate students view a 30-second test commercial (treatment) and other actual commercials ("fillers"). Credibility is measured on eight seven-point bipolar scales. Results indicate that the profession has a more important effect on perceived credibility than does the spokesperson. It is also found that different spokespeople are perceived more credible in different professions, suggesting that TV ads for professional service groups be based on profession-specific criteria.

  3. R. Eric Reidenbach and Robert E. Pitts (1986). Not All CEOs are Created Equal as Advertising Spokespersons: Evaluating the Effective CEO Spokesperson. Journal of Advertising, 15, (1), 30-36, 46.

    Actual print ads featuring the company CEO as the spokesperson are tested through a mail survey involving a sample of adult consumers. Response measures include source credibility, persuasiveness, and attitudes toward the ad, product/services, and company. Findings indicate that only under certain conditions should the CEO be used and that consumers' perception of the CEO, the advertised product, and the firm need to be taken into consideration for the effective use of the CEO as a spokesperson.

  4. Jon B. Freiden (1984). Advertising Spokesperson Effects: An Examination of Endorser Type and Gender on Two Audiences. Journal of Advertising Research, 24 (October/November): 33-40.

    The effects of the type and gender of the spokesperson and the age of the consumers are examined in an experiment utilizing a 4x2x2 factorial design. The endorser types used are a celebrity, CEO, typical consumer and an expert. The sample consists of undergraduate students (younger consumers) at the university and older adults drawn from a variety of civic and cultural organizations. Versions of a magazine ad are examined in terms of their performance on such response variables as source evaluations, perceived product quality, and buying intention. Findings indicate that the effectiveness of spokespersons differs depending on the response variables of interest, and that distinct consumer segments (older versus younger) respond to spokespersons in different ways. The gender of the endorser is found to have little impact on consumer response.

  5. Teresa A. Swartz (1984). Relationship between Source Expertise and Source Similarity in an Advertising Context. Journal of Advertising, 13 (2): 49-56.

    To examine the relationship between source expertise and source similarity, print ads for fictitious brands of products are used in a laboratory experiment. The sample consists of female college students. Analysis of subjects' agreement with a set of statements depicting the source characteristics reveals no underlying relationship between source expertise and source similarity with each being a separate dimension independent of each other.

  6. Dean Sharits and H. Bruce Lammers (1983). Perceived Attributes of Models in Prime- Time and Daytime Television Commercials: A Person Perception Approach. Journal of Marketing Research, 20 (February): 64-73.

    This paper examines the consumer's perceptions regarding female and male role portrayals in television commercials. A sample of male and female students are shown 128 randomly selected prime-time and daytime television commercials for a number of products aired on the three network stations in 1980. Following Schneider's person perception approach, a set of 13 social psychological attributes describing the model are used to measure the perceptions of the consumer. The results of the study indicate that perceptions of male and female models differ by time of airing and product category, but not by the viewer's sex. The study also suggests that the commercials do not portray women in a more negative way than they portray men. Results are discussed in their implications for advertisers.

  7. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo (1983). Source Factors and The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion. Advances in Consumer Research, 11: 668-72.

    The paper discusses how the Elaboration Likelihood Model accounts for the effects of source factors in ads. Various empirical studies are described as they provide support for the propositions of the ELM for low, moderate, and high elaboration likelihood conditions (motivation and ability to process the message).

© 1995, 1996, 1997 Jef I. Richards
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